that the drilling was carried out directly from the outside of the scalp, which seems unlikely on a living subject.
The hypothesis of a post-mortem craniectomy remains the most parsimonious. The sophisticated arrangement of this large opening in the cranial cavity of the corpse of the young Chachapoya male can be related to the absence of the brain. The organ would have been removed at an early stage of the funereal process, at the time of the body’s burial. This hypothesis is consistent with the very first observations made by P. Broca for the mummies of Piedra Grande of Utcabamba, several of which bear the trace of unhealed cranial openings. He concluded, before of his colleagues of the Société d’anthropologie (French Society of Anthropology), that they had been subjected to a process of mummification whose objective was “[to] introduce aromatic substances into the skull to prevent putrefaction” (Broca quoted by Hamy (1897, p. 66)). With regard to the case of MNHN-HA-30187, this hypothesis is supported by P. Vidal-Senèze who affirmed that he had extracted “a sponge that took the place of the encephalon and must have been soaked with an antiseptic liquid” from the mummy’s skull (Vidal-Senèse in Hamy (1897, p. 66)). If the trepanation of this Chachapoya mummy was a stage of embalming, this must be distinguished from other cases of cranial perforations known in this same chrono-cultural context, whose traces of healing indicate an ante-mortem surgical gesture, and where the hypothesis of a cranioplasty practiced after trauma has been advanced (Kurin 2013).
Although the brain was removed from the corpse of the young Chachapoya male, the body was not completely eviscerated. At the abdominal level, the supra-diaphragmatic anatomical structures (lung and heart) are clearly visible. Under the diaphragm, the kidneys and liver are also present. On the other hand, the intestines and the stomach are not clearly identifiable. Have these tissues, which promote the decomposition processes, been extracted? Were the methods of evisceration of the mummy carried out in a “partial” manner, was this the norm or an alternative applied to particular deceased people? The existence of other noneviscerated Chachapoya mummies is attested, notably at Laguna Huayabamba (Muscutt 2003; Nystrom 2003). The possibly infectious nature of the corpse of MNHN-HA-30187 could explain a specific evisceration procedure that would have avoided contact with certain organs. An epidemiological study conducted on a larger scale, in conjunction with the meticulous restitution of mortuary gestures, would make it possible to test various embalming practices according to the health and social status of the deceased.
4.4.3. Chronology of mortuary gestures
Biological data on the insect species associated with the mummy allow us to suggest different hypotheses on the post-mortem “history” of this individual and to infer new data on Chachapoya funereal gestures. Calliphoridae diptera belong to the first waves of colonizers and lay their eggs on corpses within minutes of death (Huchet 2014; Huchet and Greenberg 2010). oviposition occurs most often in natural openings (eyes, nostrils, mouth, anus, etc.) but is also possible in open wounds. In this case, the very high concentration of puparia in the lower part of the body strongly suggests that the infestation started in this area of the body. The feet, thighs and perianal area show severe damage and degradation of soft tissue attributable to the action of the larvae. The larvae then colonized the interior of the abdomen as clearly indicated by medical imaging (Figure 4.10). It cannot be ruled out that a possible post-mortem treatment of rectal evisceration such as that described on the Chachapoya mummies of La Laguna de los Cóndores (Guillén 1998; Wild et al. 2007) could have favored the infestation by Calliphoridae flies. Another hypothesis is that the individual was colonized by these Diptera during his lifetime and died of myiasis14. Although the main cases of human myiasis in the Neotropics are due to various species of Calliphoridae (in particular the native species Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel)), Dear (1985) indicates that certain species of the genus Compsomyiops can also cause myiasis in infected wounds. This assertion was recently confirmed by Guimaraes and Papavero (1999) who cite a case of myiasis due to Compsomyiops fulvicrura in Argentina.
If, however, colonization is considered more likely to have occurred postmortem, the fact that only one species of Diptera is present within the mummy indicates that the envelopment phase in the layers of tissue constituting the funereal bundle or fardo was carried out rapidly, probably within a few days of death. As Calliphoridae larvae leave the body to pupate at a distance, the presence of puparia inside the mummy indicates that this migration, inherent to the biology of these Diptera, was annihilated by the presence of the numerous layers of tissue. Depending on the species and environmental conditions, the length of the larval cycle in the feeding phase (i.e. before migration) of species of the genus Compsomyiops is between 4 and 10 days (Greenberg and Szyska 1984; Dale and Prudot 1986). The biological data reported by Dale and Prudot (1986) for C. arequipensis being between 4 and 5.9 days means that we can estimate that the body was packed in a time interval of less than 6 days.
Data from the study of insect remains present on the mummy indicates a relatively rapid funereal treatment and packaging of the body in fardo within less than 6 days. This conjecture is corroborated by the fact that the binding of the mummy in the fetal position was probably carried out only after complete disappearance of rigor mortis, that is, between 2 and 3 days after death. The hypothesis of myiasis having been the cause of death by toxaemia or sepsis is not to be totally ruled out. Finally, the phenology (periods of activity) of the species of the genus Compsomyiops would suggest that the death occurred during the hottest months of the year (i.e. between mid-August and early October for the Amazonas region).
Figure 4.14. (a) Location of Calliphoridae dipteran puparia on the mummy’s face (white arrows). (b) Hatched puparium of Compsomyiops cf. arequipensis, lateral view. (c) Idem, caudal view, posterior respiratory stigmata (center) circled by tubercles (integumentary sensory papillae). Photos © J.B. Huchet
4.5. Conclusion
Among archeological human remains, mummies constitute an exceptional legacy, which allow us to examine the corpses of disappeared populations. Beyond the emotion that this proximity can generate in the observer, mummies represent true archives in which a great quantity of information, relative to the way of life, to the cultural and funereal practices of ancient populations, is registered. Rare and fragile, they require the development of the least invasive procedures possible. In this context, medical imagery proves to be a great asset, as it gives access to the internal anatomy of the body, organs and skeleton without affecting its integrity. This data, which substantially builds upon surface observations, constitutes, moreover, a real iconographic and conservative stake. Finally, it opens up the prospect of additional reasoned analyses, backed up by solidly supported hypotheses. For mummies, as for all the anthropological heritage collections of the Muséum, particular attention is paid to research aiming at taking a fraction of organic remains (skin, bone, tooth, hair, insects, parasites), however small. Exploratory analyses such as those carried out on the Chachapoya mummy MNHN-HA-30187 make it possible to envisage an optimal scientific framework for future paleo-genetic and isotopic analyses by ensuring that relevant questions are asked. It will be necessary in the long run that the results be put into perspective by means of meta-analysis, so that the studies do not become anecdotal and deliver a coherent synthesis of the Muséum’s collection of mummies. It is important to encourage, in the continuation of the GDR, a national network of specialists in this field, and that this network can acquire international visibility.
4.6. References
de Arriaga, P.J. (1968). Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru. Atlas, Madrid.
Baumgartner,
