and earnings-to-date information, the correct amounts of income tax, Social Security tax, and several other deductions from gross wages have to be determined.Actually, a good deal of information has to be reported to employees each pay period, regarding withholdings and employee benefits. Retirement, vacation, sick pay, and other benefits earned by the employees have to be updated every pay period. Many employees do not get a payroll check. Instead, their money is sent electronically to the employee’s bank account. The total amounts of withheld income tax and Social Security taxes, plus the employment taxes imposed on the employer, have to be paid to federal and state government agencies on time.In short, payroll is a complex and critical function that the accounting department performs, often with the assistance of the human resource department. Note: Many businesses outsource payroll functions to companies that specialize in this area.
Cash receipts: All cash received from sales and from all other sources — whether via good old-fashioned cash or checks, credit cards, debit cards, electronic payments such as wire transfers or ACH, or other more modern payment vehicles such as PayPal — has to be carefully identified and recorded, not only in the cash account but also in the appropriate account for the source of the cash received. The accounting department makes sure that the cash is deposited in the appropriate checking accounts of the business and that an adequate amount of coin and currency is kept on hand for making change for customers. Accountants balance the checkbook of the business and control which persons have access to incoming cash receipts. (In larger organizations, the treasurer may be responsible for some of these cash-flow and cash-handling functions.)
Cash disbursements: A business writes many other checks or processes numerous electronic payments (such as Automated Clearing House or ACH payments, wire transfers, and so on) during the course of a year — to pay for a variety of purchases, to pay property taxes, to pay on loans, and to distribute some of its profit to the owners of the business, for example. The accounting department prepares all these checks for the signatures of the business officers who are authorized to sign checks. The accounting department keeps all the supporting business documents and files to know when the checks should be paid, makes sure that the amount to be paid is correct, and forwards the checks for signature. More and more businesses are switching to electronic methods of payments, which avoids the need for actually writing checks and mailing the checks. Electronic payments must be carefully protected to guard against hackers who would like to divert payments to themselves.
Procurement and inventory: Accounting departments usually are responsible for keeping track of all purchase orders that have been placed for inventory (products to be sold by the business) and all other assets and services that the business buys, from light bulbs to forklifts. A typical business makes many purchases during the course of a year, many of them on credit, which means that the items bought are received today but paid for later. So this area of responsibility includes keeping files on all liabilities that arise from purchases on credit so that cash payments can be processed on time. The accounting department also keeps detailed records on all products held for sale by the business and, when the products are sold, records the cost of the goods sold.
Costing: Costs are not as obvious as you might think. Tell someone that the cost of a new car is so many dollars, and most people accept the amount without question. Business owners and managers know better. Many decisions have to be made regarding which factors to include in the manufacturing cost of a product or in the purchase costs of products sold by retailers such as Costco and Walmart. Tracking costs is a major function of accounting in all businesses.
Property accounting: A typical business owns many different substantial long-term assets that go under the generic name property, plant, and equipment — including office furniture and equipment, retail display cabinets, computers, machinery and tools, vehicles (autos and trucks), buildings, and land. Except for relatively small-cost items, such as screwdrivers and pencil sharpeners, a business maintains detailed records of its property, both for controlling the use of the assets and for determining personal property and real estate taxes. The accounting department keeps these property records.
Tax compliance: The task of managing multiple tax accounting, reporting, and compliance functions usually falls on the shoulders of the accounting department. This extends well beyond simply completing annual income tax returns because most businesses must deal with a slew of other tax reporting and compliance matters, including sales/use, property, excise, payroll, and multiple other forms of taxation, at multiple levels including federal, state, county, local, and municipal.
Liabilities accounting: An entity must keep track of all relevant details about every liability it owes — from short-term purchases on credit to long-term notes payable. No entity can lose track of a liability and not pay it on time (or negotiate an extension) without hurting its credit rating.
Focusing on Transactions
The financial effects of many transactions are clear-cut and immediate. On the other hand, figuring out the financial effects of some transactions is puzzling and dependent on future developments. The financial effects of some transactions can be difficult to determine at the time of the original transaction because the outcome depends on future events that are difficult to predict. We bring up this point because most people seem to think that accounting for transactions is a cut-and-dried process. Frankly, recording some transactions is more in the nature of “let’s make our best assessment, cross our fingers, and wait and see what happens.” The point is that recording the financial effects of some transactions is tentative and conditional on future events.
Separating basic types of transactions
A business is a whirlpool of transactions. Accountants categorize transactions into three broad types:
Profit-making transactions consist of revenue and expenses as well as gains and losses outside the normal sales and expense activities of the business. We explain earlier in this chapter that one way to look at profit is as an increase in retained earnings (surplus). Another way of defining profit is as the amount of total revenue for the period minus all expenses for the period. Both viewpoints are correct.Included in this group of transactions are transactions that take place before or after the recording of revenue and expenses. For example, a business buys products that will be held for future sale. The purchase of the products is not yet an expense. The expense is not recorded until the products are sold. The purchase of products for future sale must, of course, be recorded when the purchase takes place.
Investing transactions refers to the acquisition
