on any case, but especially those with less common species, involving an experienced veterinarian or other expert can be essential to the proper understanding and workup of the case. For example, when investigating neglect within a large avian breeding facility, a zoo veterinarian may be able to accompany investigators on scene and help with assessment of the environment and basic animal needs. Such an expert may also provide expertise in identifying and gathering evidence and the humane removal and housing of multiple species, if necessary. Veterinarians and other animal experts may also play a vital role in planning the logistics and resource needs of complex cases or those involving multiple animals or a variety of species. While a veterinarian is not needed in all cases, most situations will benefit significantly from a doctor's involvement.
Involving a veterinarian to assess and report on animal cruelty investigations improves efficiency and accuracy when situations may seem complex or impossible. Calling on help early in an investigation can prevent missteps or loss of valuable evidence. Proactively finding community resources to supplement an officer or prosecutor's basic animal knowledge further supports the quality of the investigation. Consider reaching out to experts from government agencies such as the Department of Agriculture, veterinary colleges, or reputable organizations with expertise in specialized areas of nutrition or husbandry, such as marine mammal or exotic species experts. Seek out veterinarians who work in shelter medicine and may be available or can offer a referral to a veterinarian who can assist. When possible, build a network of contacts and experts that you can rely on in the event an urgent case arises. Help can be challenging to find once an emergency is underway.
2.3 With So Many Species, Where to Begin?
Animal cruelty cases most commonly involve species with close relationships to humans, mainly dogs, cats, rabbits, and horses. However, livestock such as pigs, cattle, goats, llamas, and exotic species, including reptiles, birds, marsupials, aquatics, captive wild animals, and all others may be victims of neglect or abuse.
The animal basics covered in this chapter focus on the most common domestic species, including dogs, cats, small mammals, captive avian species, small ruminants, cattle, and horses. This information is intended as a baseline and stepping‐off point that you can build upon as time goes on. Websites that provide information written or reviewed by verified experts are good sources of information, and continuing education offered by colleges and professional veterinary and animal welfare organizations also offer high‐quality information and training.
2.4 Defining Animals by Category
As a reminder, state statutes often have very specific definitions of animals and which statutes apply to them, but below are some general definitions of common terms used when describing categories or types of animals:
Livestock: animals raised in an agricultural setting, including hoofstock and equines.
Domestic animals: animals that have been adapted over generations to live alongside humans.
Pets or companion animals: a domesticated animal kept for companionship or pleasure.
Small mammals: rodents or other small mammals kept as pets, such as rats, guinea pigs, ferrets, and hedgehogs.
Avian: any bird.
Poultry: domestic fowl such as chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys.
Reptiles: scaled animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and tortoises.
Amphibians: cold‐blooded animals such as frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders.
Aquatics: an animal that lives exclusively in water.
Some state statutes also categorize particular animals further as “wildlife” or classify certain species such as large cats or monkeys as “exotics.”
2.5 Animal Basics by Species
It is impossible to cover every animal species' specific care needs in this book, but below are some general environmental, health, and nutritional considerations for species frequently encountered in animal cruelty investigations.
2.5.1 Hoofstock
Cattle, including beef and dairy breeds, llamas, alpacas, and sheep, including meat and wool breeds, and a variety of goats fall into the category that is referred to as hoofstock. These animals are all grazing and foraging animals that may have access to a range and can seek food freely or may be confined and (Figure 2.1) fed in a pasture, feedlot, or dairy environment. Food consumption can be estimated based on body weight and ranges from 1% to 4%, depending on the species, life stage, and productivity. High‐producing dairy cattle will consume 4% of their body weight (50 lb dry feed for a 1200 lb cow) per day, while a pet pygmy goat that spends her day resting and playing will consume 1 lb of food a day. Water consumption can also be calculated based on the same concepts of weight, species, utilization, and environment. With access to clean water, these animals will drink what they need. Hoofstock have a natural tendency to wear hooves down to a healthy length and shape, but in some cases require hoof care such as shaping and trimming. Regular deworming for intestinal and external parasites is required on a routine basis and is dependent upon the region and environment the animals live in. Some breeds of cattle and goats are dehorned early in life and certain breeds of sheep are tail docked as lambs to prevent fly attraction and damage during warm periods. Many of these breeds are ear tagged or microchipped for identification purposes and for registration with breed affiliates and government agencies as required. Breeding progress in sheep and cattle is monitored in some herds by use of paint markers that apply a color blot to the female's back when she is bred. All these species give birth in a pasture or barn setting unaided in most situations, but emergency procedures and veterinary intervention may be necessary when dystocia (difficulty birthing) arises. Breeds of goats, sheep, alpacas, and llamas grow long thick coats that may require shearing. Body condition can be difficult to evaluate in these species without a hands‐on opportunity as the coat obscures their body, while visual evaluation is fairly straightforward for cattle breeds or short‐coated goats.
Figure 2.1 Feed requirements for cattle and other hoofstock can be calculated based on the animals' average or estimated ideal weight.
Source: Oregon Humane Society.
2.5.2 Equine
Horses, donkeys, and mules are foraging animals eating grass and hay throughout the day. They require access to hay and/or pasture equal to 1–2% of their body weight (10–20 lb for a 1000 lb horse) per day. They drink 5–10 gal of water per day. Equine species require regular hoof trimming to allow them to walk and stand comfortably. Without regular maintenance, equine hooves are prone to painful splitting and curling. Equine teeth have evolved to grind grasses and grains. They develop sharp points and caps that must be filed away or removed by a veterinarian (a procedure known as floating) in order for the horse to efficiently chew its food. All equines are prone to parasites and require periodic deworming to avoid infestations, which can lead to illness and even death in some cases. Pregnant, nursing, and senior equines may require specialized diets and more frequent veterinary care to maintain their health and comfort.
2.5.3 Feline (Domestic Cats)
