generally quiet, but males in the midst of a disagreement are rambunctious, aggressive, and violent. Neck wrestling and leg biting are common male interactions. Breeding male camelids present challenges and require more thoughtful and deliberate management. Breeding males are territorial and highly sexual (Figures 2.53 and 2.54).
Figure 2.51 This halter fits. You can see that there is slack in the nose band and the halter fits well up on the nose bone.
Figure 2.52 A handler helper is a great way to facilitate catching by people who are not trained to catch properly.
To successfully shape the behavior of males, it is helpful to understand their behavior in relation to other camelids and understand their behavior in relation to humans. To convince males not to engage in natural behaviors is a losing proposition. A better approach is to make fighting or other problematic behaviors unnecessary. Anyone working with intact males should pay close attention and anticipate behavior. Doing this will allow prevention of unwanted behavior, which is more effective and safer than attempting to correct misbehavior once it has occurred.
Figure 2.53 Male llamas fighting.
Figure 2.54 Male alpacas fighting.
Trying to force males that live together to play nicely all the time is impossible, but their environment can be controlled, which can diffuse many situations. Good facilities will allow for handling breeding males easily and safely. An intact male on a lead rope can learn to be respectful and cooperative even when females are around.
It is not always about dominance! A common misconception of many camelid owners and veterinarians is that undesirable male behavior is because of their desire to express dominance over another. The dominance model is overused to explain behavior between camelids as well as behavior between camelids and their human caretakers. The primary problem with the dominance explanation of behavior stems from the improper adaptation of the model from wolves and dogs. The term dominance means different things to different people; professionals and academics commonly disagree on the meaning of the word though most agree that the lay public frequently misuse it. Additionally, applying an across‐the‐board dominance hierarchy to all camelids, in all situations, oversimplifies very fluid, context‐specific behaviors that may or may not have to do with a pecking order.[6] It also assumes that aggression is the result of natural camelid behavior when, in fact, it may be caused by human mismanagement. Dominance, according to most experts, should not be used to indicate a temperamental attribute, motivation, territoriality, or aggressive acts (even offensive ones).
Dominance is not absolute. “Every individual assumes the subordinate role at some point with some individual in some context unless the individual is pathological.”6 In terms of camels, natural feeding behavior seems to be devoid of dominance, and there does not seem to be rigid rules about who goes first or who initiates a grazing shift. With readily available forage, hierarchical relationships appear to be very laissez‐faire. Schulte and Klingel observed camels moving from the boma (overnight corral) to the feeding grounds. They could not recognize a true leader, as the camels seemed to share the lead position, and the changes in front position were friendly and the relieved animal was not observed attempting to regain its former position.[7] In the camel population, males can drive and chase females in a sexual context but have absolutely no privileges when it comes to other things like food and salt. Schulte and Klingel concluded that camels do not routinely express dominance rather than in sexual situations and theorize that it is due to the evolution of the species in an environment where there was no need to monopolize resources.[7] Truly dominant individuals rarely engage in aggressive encounters. “Although aggression at times is used to establish dominance, agonistic encounters, particularly between familiar individuals are normally resolved with non‐injurious ritualistic behavior.”[6]
If there is limited food offered to a group of camelids, there will be fighting, but it is important to realize that this is about food, not about social rank. We humans are starting this fight and we can prevent it by managing feeding time differently. Based on the environment that shaped their behavior, camelids, particularly males, should not have to compete for food. Once fighting is understood as competition for food and not an unavoidable issue of dominance, unnecessary fighting can be eliminated. Feeding males well away from each other defuses battles before they begin. Three feet per animal is often quoted as a rule of thumb but the greater the distance the better.
Remember the same rule of thumb, “distance = happy camelids,” applies to all resources. Do not make your males fight over anything! Make sure that there is shade, water, minerals, and salt available to all members of a male group. Think of managing males as reverse musical chairs: there is always one more chair than players, so there is no need to defend or compete for limited resources.
Pen Size and Shape
Pen size can be manipulated, and it is natural to use the number of animals as a gauge for pen size. However, this rule of thumb does not take into consideration all necessary factors to determine how many males can safely be housed in a pen. Distance from coveted resources is key. The camel literature would suggest that there is a distance that young bachelor males must maintain from females. According to Schulte and Klingel, “The bull was able to chase bachelors of age up to 5 years which were kept in the vicinity. Whenever they came too close to the herd, they were attacked and chased up to 50 meters or further away. In no case was there any resistance.”[7] There does seem to be a minimum size pen that will work for boys regardless of the numbers. Three intact males may need as much room as 10 females if they are going to get along. Subordinate animals must be able to get far enough away to communicate that they are giving up any claim to the coveted resource – in most cases females. Males will chase other males very vigorously to protect territory. In a pen that is too small, no matter what they do, subordinates cannot provide adequate distance and are always in trouble.
In addition to pen size, pen shape, the contour of the land, presence or absence of buildings, and the location of females in relation to the shape of the pen are influencing factors. If you have males that are not getting along you might think of offering more space or tinkering with feeding locations in relation to the females. For example, move temporary shelters or add temporary fencing to create a baffle that creates an impediment to chasing. Ideally, the females are completely out of sight. If the females can be seen but only from a specific part of the male pasture it can lead to fights, as this spot will be the prime piece of real estate on the premises. If you are in the process of setting up your farm, choose a pasture for your males that has hills or areas that provide visual cover for junior males and one that is either completely hidden or completely in view of the females.
Temperament is probably both genetic and environmental. The author's own experience would indicate that the genetic component is more important. Hyper‐aggressive males that cannot live in a group without risk to all members
