9.1 “Curtain of Fire” fissure eruption on Mauna Loa produces an elong...Figure 9.2 A central summit crater vent and flank eruption basalt lava flow ...Figure 9.3 Small parasitic volcano cones at the Mauna Kea summit. Subsurface...Figure 9.4 (a) Kīlauea caldera rim, Halema’uma’u crater, and Overlook pit cr...Figure 9.5 Flood basalts occur in both continental and oceanic environments ...Figure 9.6 (a) 12 m high “Pipe Organ” basalt columns, Giants Causeway, North...Figure 9.7 Glassy rinds and stretch marks on billowed pillow basalts that er...Figure 9.8 Black smoker from hydrothermal vent fields along the Kermadec Arc...Figure 9.9 Shield volcano map of the Big Island of Hawaii.Figure 9.10 On 6 June 2018, an explosion within Halema’uma’u crater blasted ...Figure 9.11 A 8 June 2018 eruption produced 70 m high lava fountains spoutin...Figure 9.12 Approximately 5 m tall spatter cone constructed by a lava founta...Figure 9.13 Approximately 5 m high, 100 m long spatter rampart in Kīlauea fr...Figure 9.14 Pele's tears collected downwind from Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii. No...Figure 9.15 Pele's blonde hair created by windblown streamlining of silica g...Figure 9.16 Thurston Lave Tube in Hawaii formed during fissure eruptions in ...Figure 9.17 Skylights into lava tube system in Hawaii caldera.Figure 9.18 Ropey, billowy pahoehoe flow and a skylight in Hawaii.Figure 9.19 An aa flow erupted on Kīlauea Volcano's East Rift Zone on 1 June...Figure B9.1 USGS block diagram illustrating magma flow from the summit calde...Figure B9.2 Kīlauea summit lava lake has been active from April 2018 to 2021...Figure B9.3 Kīlauea summit caldera subsidence as a result of Spring 2018 vol...Figure B9.4 Halema’uma’u crater experienced loss of its lava lake, summit de...Figure B9.5 9 August 2018 map denoting volcanic activity along the East Rift...Figure 9.20 On the Big Island of Hawaii: Mauna Loa (background), Mauna Kea (...Figure 9.21 Cinder cones of the San Francisco volcanic field in the foregrou...Figure B9.6 The volcano of Parícutin soon after its birth in 1943.Figure 9.22 Relative scale of composite volcanoes versus shield volcanoes....Figure 9.23 Block lava composed of trachyandesite (an extrusive rock, interm...Figure 9.24 Fin shaped spine at Mount St. Helens, February 2005.Figure 9.25 Mount St. Helens' lava dome as viewed on 22 August 1981 from 800...Figure 9.26 22 June 1980 explosive eruption of Mt. St. Helens sent pumice an...Figure 9.27 Loosely welded tuff from, of all places, Kīlauea Crater, Hawaii....Figure 9.28 Pyroclastic ash cloud and pyroclastic flow generated by dome col...Figure 9.29 Pyroclastic surges buried Plymouth on the Island of Montserrat f...Figure 9.30 Montserrat Lahar deposits from 1995, with building size blocks e...Figure B9.7 Hazard assessment map of Colombia's Nevado (Navada) del Ruiz vol...Figure B9.8 Armero buried by a lahar.Figure B9.9 Map of lahar flows and pyroclastic flow zones in the Tacoma‐Seat...Figure 9.31 Yellowstone's Quaternary eruptions include three of the four lar...Figure 9.32 Phreatomagmatic volcanic activity is particularly common in plac...Figure 9.33 Diamond Head Tuff Ring.Figure 9.34 A lake in the bottom of a tuff cone crater within the caldera at...Figure 9.35 In April of 1977, Ukinrek volcano experienced a 10 day phreatoma...Figure 9.36 Hot spring pools precipitate opaline (silica) sinter deposits wi...Figure 9.37 Beehive geyser at Yellowstone.Figure 9.38 (a) This fumarole at Kīlauea volcano is releasing sulfur gases w...Figure 9.39 Mass extinctions (gray) and flood basalts (red) over the past 30...10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 (a) Major tectonic environments where igneous rocks occur.(b...Figure 10.2 (a) Cross section of ocean lithosphere. (b) Block diagram of mid...Figure 10.3 A spider diagram illustrates minor and trace element variations ...Figure B10.1. Over 2000 Proterozoic and younger ophiolite rocks were plotted...Figure B10.2. ThN vs. NbN diagrams are used to identify basalt‐type and tect...Figure B10.3. A chondrite normalized (Ce/Yb) N vs. (Dy/Yb)N diagram is used ...Figure 10.4 Earth's convergent margins marked by ocean trenches.Figure 10.5 The steeply dipping Marianas‐type island arc subduction and the ...Figure 10.6 (a) Tholeiitic mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) display iron enric...Figure 10.7 (a) Ocean–ocean convergence producing island arc volcanoes and b...Figure B10.4 (a) Classification of some granitoid rocks enriched in plagiocl...Figure 10.8 (a) Modern back arc basins are concentrated in the Western Pacif...Figure 10.9 Major ophiolite, orogenic, and ocean basin sampling locations th...Figure 10.10 Zoned intrusion from the Blashke Islands complex, southeast Ala...Figure 10.11 Earth's large igneous provinces (LIP). CAMP, Central Atlantic M...Figure 10.12 The fractionation sequence occurring at ocean islands produces ...Figure 10.13 East African rift system represents the third leg to the Gulf o...Figure 10.14 Possible tectonic causes for continental rifts.Figure 10.15 Dual columnar basalt flows separated above and below by massive...Figure 10.16 Map indicating the location of layered mafic‐ultramafic intrusi...Figure 10.17 Close up of rhythmic layers within a channel structure in the S...Figure 10.18 Komatiite (a) Photomicrograph and (b) field photo of spinifex t...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Differential weathering between durable cliff and pillar‐forming...Figure 11.2 The relative roles of mechanical disintegration and chemical dec...Figure 11.3 Bryce Canyon, Utah showing pillars and windows formed by differe...Figure 11.4 Joints in anorthosite bedrock, Saranac Lake, New York.Figure 11.5 Sequential diagram (clockwise from top left) showing disintegrat...Figure 11.6 Biological weathering by tree root growth in Silurian dolostone,...Figure 11.7 The increase in surface area resulting from disintegration of ro...Figure 11.8 Spheroidal weathering of basaltic rock at Table Mountain, Golden...Figure B11.1 (a) Dissolution of carbonates by carbonated acidic groundwater....Figure 11.9 Distribution of karst dissolution features in the United States....Figure 11.10 Generalized erosion rates for wind (blue line) and water (red l...Figure 11.11 (a) The basic components of clay minerals: a single silica tetr...Figure 11.12 A three‐layer illite model depicting an aluminum octahedral lay...Figure 11.13 A three‐layer smectite clay, montmorillonite, in a partially ex...Figure 11.14 A four‐layer, 14 Å (0.14 μm) structure typical of chlorites, wi...Figure 11.15 (a) Paintings of horses using manganese oxides and hydroxides (...Figure 11.16 Proportions of the major components in average soil.Figure 11.17 Textural classification of soils.Figure 11.18 Layered soil produced by the disintegration and decomposition o...Figure 11.19 The ideal distribution of soil horizons in a fully developed wi...Figure 11.20 Examples of the major soil orders in the USDA‐NRSC soil taxonom...Figure 11.21 The major Atterberg classes of fine‐grained soils and the limit...Figure 11.22 Liquefaction produced when grains (blue) are separated; cohesiv...Figure B11.2 (a) Damage to the Van Norman (Lower San Fernando) Dam, 1971....Figure 11.23 (a) Collapsed apartment buildings in Nigata, Japan, after the 1...Figure 11.24 A Casagrande plot of soil sensitivity using the plasticity inde...Figure 11.25 Italy's famed Leaning Tower of Pisa, which was constructed on c...Figure 11.26 (a) Jurassic soil with plant root casts, buried by braided stre...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A simple model of the sedimentary cycle.Figure 12.2 (a) Thin laminations (above) and thicker beds (below) in the Jur...Figure 12.3 Major terrestrial, paralic, and marine depositional environments...Figure 12.4 Laminar and turbulent flow profiles; flow lines are dashed.Figure 12.5 Transition from laminar flow (background) to turbulent flow (for...Figure 12.6 Hjulstrom's diagram showing velocity conditions for entrainment ...Figure 12.7 Sediment loads in an idealized aqueous medium.Figure 12.8 A simplified version of the flow regime concept: (a) lower flow ...Figure 12.9 Current ripples. (a) Asymmetrical current ripples on a modern be...Figure 12.10 Slightly wavy‐crested sand waves or subaqueous dunes, Rio Hondo...Figure 12.11 Antidunes in phase with standing waves on a flow surface. Antid...Figure 12.12 Flow regimes with respect to mean flow velocity and grain size....Figure 12.13 Ripple migration by stoss‐side erosion and lee‐side deposition ...Figure 12.14 Progressive increases in trough climb rates due to bed aggradat...Figure 12.15 Climbing ripple laminations produced by down‐current (left to r...Figure 12.16 Tabular sets of planar cross‐strata. (a) Formation by aggrading...Figure 12.17 (a) Wedge sets and trough sets of festoon cross‐strata formed b...Figure 12.18 Plane bed transition. (a) View of a plane bed under shallow uni...Figure 12.19 Upper flow regime and antidunes. (a–d) Antidunes in laboratory ...Figure 12.20 (a) Deep water waves showing roughly circular orbitals whose di...Figure 12.21 Oscillatory flow and sand movement (left in a, then right in b)...Figure 12.22 (a) Oscillation ripple marks showing crest bifurcation, symmetr...Figure 12.23 (a) Oscillation ripples in the Carboniferous Horton Group, Nova...Figure 12.24 Interlayered ripple‐laminated sandstone and mudstone from tidal...Figure 12.25 (a) Block diagram showing hummocky cross‐stratification (HCS). ...Figure 12.26 Major modes of sediment transport by winds: creep, saltation, a...Figure 12.27 Velocity conditions for wind erosion, transportation by suspens...Figure 12.28 Typical loess deposit; note the paucity
