are available in many books on mineralogy (e.g., Wenk and Bulakh 2016) and structural geology (e.g., van der Pluijm and Marshak 2004; Davis et al. 2011). Figure 4.34 shows how an edge dislocation can migrate through a crystal by breaking a single bond at a time. The result of dislocation migration is a crystal shape change accomplished without rupture. Dislocations are important plastic deformation processes allowing rocks to change shape without visible rupture (Chapter 16).
Figure 4.34 Two‐dimensional depiction of how an edge dislocation created by slip due to shear can migrate through a crystal by breaking one bond at a time, so that no fractures develop as the crystal changes shape during deformation (steps 1–6).
Source: Adapted from Hobbs et al. (1976). © John Wiley & Sons.
Figure 4.35 Three types of planar defect (shown in two dimensions): (a) intergranular grain boundary between two different crystals; (b) intragranular mechanical twin boundary resulting from mechanical slip; (c) intragranular subgrain boundary within a crystal, separated by a wall of dislocations. Imagine each extending in a second dimension perpendicular to the page and note how (b) and (c) accommodate changes in crystal shape.
4.8.3 Planar defects
Planar defects (Figure 4.35) extend in two dimensions and are therefore two‐dimensional defects. They are places within a crystal where the crystal structure changes across a distinct planar boundary. Examples include: (1) the boundaries between exsolution lamellae, for example between albite and potassium feldspar in perthites; (2) the subgrain boundaries between twins in twinned crystals; (3) the subgrain boundaries within crystals between out‐of‐phase crystal structures generated during ordering transformations; (4) grain boundaries between different crystals; and (5) extra atomic planes or missing planes called stacking faults.
Point defects, line defects, and planar defects are critically important in the study of deformed rocks, particularly in the elastic and plastic deformation processes discussed in Chapter 16 (Box 4.2).
Box 4.2 Defects and plastic deformation in crystals
You may recall from earlier courses in which folds, faults, and metamorphic foliations were discussed that when stresses are applied to rocks, they experience changes in shape and/or volume. These changes in shape and/or volume that occur in response to stress are called strains. They are analogous to the strains that occur in bones and muscles when they change shape in response to stress. Non‐elastic strains are subdivided into those in which rocks break along fractures such as faults or joints and those in which shape changes are accomplished without macroscopic fracturing. Irreversible strains that involve visible fracturing are called rupture; those that do not are called plastic strains and accommodate plastic deformation. Rupture is favored by rapid strain rates (think how fast the bone changes shape as it fractures), low confining pressures, and low temperatures. On the other hand, plastic strain is favored by very low strain rates, high confining pressures, and high temperatures (Figure B4.2a). Under such conditions, deep below the surface, rocks respond very slowly to stress in a manner more like Playdough® or modeling clay than like the rigid rocks we see at Earth's surface. How can rocks undergo significant strain without rupturing? A major key lies in the large number of defects that the minerals in rocks contain.
Plastic deformation at high temperatures and low strain rates largely results from two significant types of diffusion creep (Figure B4.2a) that are dependent on the existence of omission defects in minerals: (1) Coble (grain boundary diffusion) creep, and (2) Herring–Nabarro (volume diffusion) creep. Elevated temperatures are associated with elevated molecular vibration in an expanded crystal lattice. Such vibrations lower bond strength and increase the number of omission defects (also called holes or vacancies) in the crystal structure. As holes are created, adjacent atoms can migrate into the vacancy by breaking only one weak bond a time. The movement of the ions in one direction causes the holes or vacancies to migrate in the opposite direction (Figure B4.2b).
Under conditions of differential stress, ions tend to be forced toward the direction of least compressive stress (σ3), which tends to lengthen the crystal in that direction. Simultaneously, holes tend to migrate toward the direction of maximum compressive stress (σ1) until they reach the surface of the crystal where they disappear, causing the crystal to shorten in this direction (Figure B4.2b). In Coble creep, the vacancies and ions migrate near grain boundaries to achieve the strain, whereas in Herring–Nabarro creep, the vacancies and ions migrate through the interior of the crystals. Since thousands of omission defects are created over long periods of time, even in small crystals, the long‐term summative effects of plastic strain as each crystal changes shape by diffusion creep can be very large indeed.
At higher strain rates related to higher differential stresses, dislocation creep processes become dominant (Figure B4.1). In these environments edge dislocations and screw dislocations migrate through the crystal structure, once again breaking only one bond at a time, while producing plastic changes in shape. Because such dislocations result from strain, large numbers are produced in response to stress, and their migration accommodates large amounts of plastic strain. Imagining the summative plastic changes in shape that can be accomplished by the migration of thousands of diffusing vacancies and/or migrating dislocations in a small crystal or l020 dislocations migrating through the many crystals in a large mass of rock offers insight into the power of crystal defects to accommodate plastic deformation on scales that range from microcrystals to regionally metamorphosed mountain ranges.
Figure B4.2 (a) Deformation map showing the significant role of omission defects and dislocations in the high temperature plastic deformation of crystals.
Source: Modified from Davis et al. (1996). © John Wiley & Sons.
(b) Diagrams showing how the existence of omission defects permits adjacent ions to move into their former locations, effectively causing the omission or hole to migrate in one
