and began introducing both olive trees and vines to Gaul (modern-day France) and other areas in the empire. The Romans set up a network of trade that spanned from the modern-day United Kingdom, through Western Europe, into North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and China. Sometimes, they used existing trade routes such as the Silk Road, the Incense trails, and those set up by the Vikings; other times, they constructed their own routes.
Regardless of which routes they used, Roman commerce set up a sophisticated structure of international commerce that we now refer to as globalization. Roman Emperors sent fleets out to various areas of the globe to procure the best ingredients. They knew, for example, when the best prawns were available in the Mediterranean and sent ships to fish for them off the coast of Libya. They procured enough wheat from North Africa to fund the entire empire. Elaborate murals and depictions from Pompei provide a glimpse into the daily lives of ancient Romans, the ingredients they had at their disposal and how they cooked and shopped.
Spiced wine, or mead, along with barley and wheat bread, grains and pulses, fresh fruit (figs, pomegranate, apples, grapes, quinces, and dates) and vegetables (cucumbers, lettuce, leeks, greens, broccoli, onions, and garlic) along with legumes such as chickpeas and fava were prepared in addition to poultry, foul, and meat by the ancient Romans. Food was heavily spiced because spices were a symbol of wealth and luxury as well as traditional medicinals. Roman cuisine is most often depicted using garum (a fermented fish sauce) as a condiment. The Romans taxed citizens heavily on salt and wheat, so they invented ingenious ways of flavoring food (such as with preserved fish) and mimicking a staple grain (such as burning the grain that came out of winnowers and grinding it again by hand, known as grano arso, or “burnt grain” in Italian).
Black pepper, imported from Asia, was coveted by the Romans both as a commodity and a seasoning. They imported so much of it into the Egyptian port city of Alexandria that in antiquity one of the city’s entry points was known as “The Pepper Gate.” One of the greatest resources available on Roman cuisine is called On Cooking or De Re Coquinaria in Latin. The first-century book was written by the Roman philosopher Apicius, who is said to be the father of all gourmands. Legend has it that when Apicius learned that he could no longer afford the delicacies his palate craved, he committed suicide. His book recounts recipes from not only Rome itself, but other parts of the empire as well, and it’s still available for purchase today. Many international cooking schools, restaurants, and culinary centers are named after Apicius, and for years it was believed that he wrote the first Western cookbook ever found. In the middle of the fourth century B.C.E., however, the Greek gourmand Archestratus wrote “Fragments from the Life of Luxury” in Sicily.
How terrain and climate shaped regional cuisine
Both Italy’s indigenous inhabitants and foreign rulers made the best of what mother nature offered them in terms of climate. It’s hard for many people to imagine that a country the same size as a single American state could have so much variance in terms of weather, terrain, and climate, but the Italian landscape is very diverse. The Alps in the North and the Apennine Mountain range that cuts through the nation, combined with the effects of the Ionian, Tyrrhenian, Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Mediterranean Seas, combine to make the soil and climate unique in places that are often only a short distance apart from one another.
No matter whether you speak to a winemaker, a farmer, an olive grower, or a fisherman in Italy, you will hear of how the weather plays a role in their livelihood. Even the same varieties of grapes, for example, grown within a particular region, are often different (in terms of flavor, size, and time of maturation) from estate to estate because of the climate in the specific areas where they are grown. Italy is also home to many microclimates, such as the one in the mountains of Calabria in Aspromonte, which is the only place where Bergamot citrus can be grown.
Because of these climatic variances, prior to modernization and industrialization, it was difficult for the masses to enjoy foods from all areas of Italy. Those who lived in the North couldn’t afford to have the lush citrus such as clementines, oranges, and lemons from the south on a daily basis. Instead, they became treats that were enjoyed at Christmastime as gifts. The rice used for risotto in the North was not shipped to the South, and was not a part of the local cuisine. Only in modern times is risotto eaten at homes and in restaurants in Southern Italy. Each Italian region had local dialects used in the kitchen (which are still used, but not exclusively), a terrain, and (in the coastal areas) water that determined ingredient availability, and a climate that allowed for specific crops to be grown. For these reasons, regional Italian cuisine developed.
How foreign powers influenced cuisine across geographic locations
As foreign rulers came into power in different places in Italy, they often left their imprint on regional cuisine and took local traditions back to their countries of origin. It’s important to realize that some cities in Italy are closer to France or North Africa than they are to Rome — and each region’s cuisine reflects this. Sometimes, tourists to Italy eat only in establishments that offer what we consider to be “Italian food,” and at first glance they have a hard time distinguishing what is local and what is regional. Scratch a bit below the surface, however, and you will find many unique foods in each Italian region. Here are just a very few of them:
Austrian influences in the Northeast: In the areas around Venice, in the Veneto and places like Udine, as well as in Trentino Alto Adige where it is estimated that 40 percent of the inhabitants speak German as a first language, you will find local versions of pretzels, sauerkraut, rye bread, goulash, and Austrian-inspired pastries such as Viennoiseries.
Provencal synergy in Genoa and Liguria: The shared history between Southern France and the Italian Riviera has given way to many similar recipes – from focaccia (fougasse) to pesto (pistou) and the abundant use of chickpea flour.
Greek and Arab influences in Sicily and port cities: Two waves of Arab occupation — the Aghlabids and the Fatimids — beginning in the ninth and tenth centuries in Sicily introduced mulberries, gelato, lemons, oranges, eggplants, couscous, marzipan, and many other ingredients to the largest island in the Mediterranean. Because Venice, Istanbul (then Constantinople), and Cairo were once sister cities in the spice trade, Venice (along with other port cities such as Genoa) received a great deal of revenue from spices, and they became important in the foods of those regions. Saffron, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, and ginger were just a few. Eventually, the spices became synonymous with luxury and holiday dishes, and the ingredients were introduced to the rest of the country.
French influences in Piedmont: French was the official language of the court until the mid-19th century, and French influences can still be noticed today. Due to the similar terrain, corn, barley, wheat, rye, and oats are grown along with grape orchards, fruit trees, and vegetables. Home to 70 percent of Italy’s rice production, along with trout and frogs from the mountain rivers and the presence of the white truffle, French cuisine lends itself to the region.
Spanish Rule: From the 16th to the 18th century, many Italian states (everyone except Venice) were ruled directly by Aragon, as is evidenced by the many Aragonite castles that dot the Southern Italian coastline. During this time, it was Spanish, not Italian, interests which were protected in Italy. Many people believe that many modern Italian disparities are rooted in the type of absentee governing and land ownership that began during this time period. The prevalence of tomatoes, chocolate, peppers, corn, and other ingredients brought in by the Spanish from the New World to Europe are culinary staples that were introduced during these times.
The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: From 1816 to 1860, from Naples down to Sicily, there was a Kingdom whose rule passed back and forth between the French and Spanish. The Italian south (especially its agriculture) was exploited by foreign influences until the 19th century. Nowadays the
