the ways that White European American cultural attitudes, expectations, and values emerge within conventional approaches to counseling and psychotherapy Table 3.1 Components of White Culture: Values and BeliefsSource: Katz, J. (1985). The Counseling Psychologist. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Copyright 1985 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission.Rugged individualismProtestant work ethicIndividual is primary unitWorking hard brings successIndividual has primary responsibilityProgress and future orientation Independence and autonomy are highly valued and rewardedPlan for futureIndividual can control environmentDelay gratificationCompetition Value continual improvement and progressWinning is everythingEmphasis on scientific method Win/lose dichotomyObjective, rational, linear thinkingAction orientation Cause‐and‐effect relationshipsMust master and control natureQuantitative emphasisMust always do something about a situationStatus and power Pragmatic/utilitarian view of lifeMeasured by economic possessionsCommunication Credentials, titles, and positionsStandard EnglishBelieve in “own” systemWritten traditionBelieve own system is better than other systemsDirect eye contactOwning goods, space, property are valued goalsLimited physical contactFamily structure Control of emotionsNuclear family is the ideal social unitTime Male is breadwinner and the head of the householdAdherence to rigid notions of timeFemale is homemaker and subordinate to the husbandTime is viewed as a commodityPatriarchal structureHolidays Aesthetics Primarily based on Christian religionMusic and art based on European culturesPrimarily based on White history and male leadersWomen's beauty based on blonde, blue‐eyed, thin, youngHistory Men's attractiveness based on athletic ability, power, economic statusBased on European immigrants’ experience in the United StatesReligion Romanticize warBelief in ChristianityNo tolerance for deviation from single god concept
A discussion of the mismatch of these attitudes with the experiences and values of other cultural groups, and how this mismatch undermines the effectiveness of therapy
A section that shows how even family therapy, which might seem to be more consistent with the values of many cultural groups, is based on theory and technique that clashes with many cultural group traditions
A section that underscores the importance of anticipating and accommodating non‐native English speakers
A presentation that links the foregoing discussion to therapeutic work with clients who live in poverty
A reminder that the information that we are learning is not to be applied to particular clients in “cookie‐cutter” fashion. Learning about the traditional values of various cultural groups is important to the development of our multicultural competence, but clients are individuals, and they may show some or none of the values that are traditionally associated with their cultures.
CULTURE‐BOUND VALUES
Culture consists of all the things that people have learned to do, believe, value, and enjoy. It is the totality of the ideals, beliefs, skills, tools, customs, and institutions into which members of society are born (Ratts & Pedersen, 2014). Although being bicultural is a source of strength, the process of negotiating dual group membership can present challenges for many marginalized group members. Persons of color experience strong pressures to adopt the ways of the dominant culture, which tend to be seen as normal and good; in the meantime, their home culture may be viewed as “different,” “interesting,” “colorful,” or even overtly deficient. Cultural‐deficit models are viewpoints from which culturally diverse groups are seen as possessing inferior or dysfunctional values and belief systems; these features may then tacitly be considered sources of shame and/or disadvantages to be overcome. In essence, marginalized groups often receive the message that to be different is to be deviant, inferior, problematic, or ill.
Several culture‐bound characteristics of therapy may trigger and reinforce negative beliefs about diverse cultural communities. Many foundational assumptions about what therapy is and how it is properly conducted emerge from White Western European cultural values. Therapists whose own socialization is European American may not easily detect (or even notice) these linkages because these values are so taken for granted by them—yet they are values that may not be shared by the diverse communities of individuals who are part of American society. As a result, the demeanor of these clients may not fit the tacit therapeutic expectations held by therapist (meaning expectations that are assumed, unspoken, and may not even be fully conscious). These circumstances can lead the therapist to misevaluate the client, with the result that the client feels misunderstood by the therapist. These assumed and often unstated values include a focus on the individual, the valuing of expressiveness and insight, the expectation of self‐disclosure, a reliance upon particular communication styles and patterns, the prioritization of Western scientific empiricism, and an assumption of separateness between mental and physical spheres of being.
FOCUS ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Most forms of counseling and psychotherapy tend to be individual‐centered. In other words, conventional psychotherapy positions the individual client as the target of treatment and the location of needed change. Personal problems, therefore, are generally conceptualized as lying somewhere within the intrapsychic configuration of the individual. Ivey et al. (2014) noted that U.S. culture and society are based on the concept of individualism and that competition between individuals for status, recognition, and achievement forms the basis for ideas of success. Individualism, autonomy, and the ability to become your own person are perceived as healthy and desirable goals. Pedersen and Pope (2010) observed, however, that not all cultures view individualism as a positive orientation; rather, it may be perceived by some as a handicap to attaining enlightenment, and one that may divert us from important spiritual goals. In many non‐Western cultures, individual identity is considered to be less important than one's group, community, or family orientation (collectivism). For example, the notion of atman in India is defined as participating in unity with all things and not being limited by the temporal world.
Accordingly, many societies do not define the primary psychosocial unit of operation as the individual. In many cultures and subgroups, the psychosocial unit of operation tends to be the family, group, or collective society. In traditional Asian American culture, one's identity is defined within the family constellation. The greatest punitive measure to be taken against an individual by the family is to be disowned by them. When this happens, what it means, in essence, is that the person no longer has an identity. Although being disowned by a family in Western European culture is equally negative and punitive, it does not have the same connotations as in traditional Asian society. Although they may be disowned by a family, Westerners have been taught to believe that they have an individual identity that remains important as well. Many Latinx individuals may also value the unit of operation as residing within the family. In addition, African American psychologists (Parham, Ajamu, & White, 2011) have pointed out how the African view of the world encompasses a concept of “groupness.”
Values of collectivism can be reflected in many aspects of behavior. Traditional Asian American and Latinx elders, for example, tend to greet one another with the question, “How is your family today?” Contrast this with how most Americans tend to greet each other: “How are you?” The first emphasizes the family (or group) perspective, while the second emphasizes the two individuals speaking to each other. Likewise, affective expressions in therapy can be strongly influenced by the particular orientation one takes. When individuals engage in wrongful behaviors in the United States, they are most likely to experience feelings of guilt. In societies that emphasize collectivism, however, the most dominant affective response to follow a wrongful behavior is shame rather than guilt. The two are related, but are different:
