the counselor role of “active manipulator” may clash with these concepts of being‐in‐becoming.
Likewise, Latinx culture may be said to have a more here‐and‐now or being‐in‐becoming orientation. Like their American Indian counterparts, Latinx traditions emphasize that people are born with dignidad (dignity) and must be given respeto (respect). They are born with innate worth and importance, and the inner soul and spirit are more important than the body. People cannot always be held accountable for their lot in life (status, role, etc.) because they are born into this life state (Inclan, 1985). A certain degree of fatalismo (fatalism) is present, and life events may be viewed as inevitable (Lo que Dios manda, “what God wills”). Philosophically, it does not matter what people have in life or what position they occupy—everyone is entitled to respeto. Since this belief system deemphasizes material accomplishments as a measure of personal success, it is at odds with European American middle‐class society. Although a doing‐oriented family may define a member's worth via achievement, a being orientation equates worth simply with belonging. Thus, when clients complain that someone is not an effective family member, what do they mean? Is it a complaint that the family member is not performing and achieving, as the therapist may initially suspect, or does it mean that they are not respectful and accommodating to family structures and values? Such issues need to be clarified by the therapist before assumptions are made.
NATURE OF PEOPLE DIMENSION
Middle‐class European Americans generally perceive the nature of people as neutral. Environmental influences, such as conditioning, family upbringing, and socialization, are believed to be dominant forces in determining the nature of the person. People are neither good nor bad, but are influenced by their environment. Although several cultural groups may share features of this belief with White Americans, there may be qualitative differences that shape views of family structure and dynamics. For example, African American culture may also be characterized as affirming that people are basically neutral, and that environmental factors have a great influence on how people develop. This orientation is further specified, however, by the African American community's experience of racism, discrimination, and oppression as pervasive external factors that have harmful impacts upon individuals and families.
Asian Americans and American Indians tend to emphasize the inherent goodness of people. We have already discussed the Native American belief that people have an innate capacity to advance and grow and that problematic behaviors are the result of environmental influences that thwart the opportunity to develop according to one's nature. Likewise, Asian philosophies (Buddhism and Confucianism) affirm people's innate goodness and prescribe role relationships that manifest the “good way of life.” Central to Asian belief is the idea that the best healing source lies within the family (Daya, 2005; Walsh & Shapiro, 2006) and that seeking help from the outside (e.g., counseling and therapy) is non‐productive.
Latinx American traditions often view human nature as having the capacity for both good and bad. Concepts of dignidad and respeto undergird the belief that people are born imbued with positive qualities. At the same time, traditional elders may appeal to supernatural forces so that children may be blessed with a favorable human nature (Inclan, 1985). Thus, given that a child's nature may be accepted as destiny, parents may be less inclined to seek help from helping professionals or educators. The preferred mode of help may be religious consultations and talking with neighbors and friends who sympathize and understand the dilemma.
LANGUAGE BARRIERS
The use of Standard English in health care delivery can harmfully discriminate against individuals from many cultural groups, including those from a non‐native, bilingual, or lower socioeconomic background (Ratts & Pedersen, 2014; Vedantam, 2005). This inequity occurs in our educational system and in the delivery of mental health services even as the number of bilingual Americans is increasing dramatically; it has approximately doubled since 1980 (Grosjean, 2018), and over 20% of U.S. families speak a language other than English at home (Ziegler & Camarota, 2019). Accordingly, Schwartz, Rodriguez, Santiago‐Rivera, Arredondo, and Field (2010) indicated that psychologists are increasingly finding themselves interacting with clients who have English as a second language (or who do not speak English at all).
When bilingual individuals have no access to multilingual therapy opportunities, many aspects of their emotional experience may not be available for treatment; they may be unable to use the full complexity of language to describe their particular thoughts, feelings, and unique situations. Clients for whom English is a second language often feel like they are constrained to speak in an overly simple or childlike manner to explain complex thoughts and feelings (Arredondo, Gallardo‐Cooper, Delgado‐Romero, & Zapata, 2014). On the other hand, when clinical settings have been able to provide the opportunity for bilingual clients to more fully bring their personal linguistic realities into therapy, it meant that
participants were better able to express and process their thoughts and feelings, convey their true selves, be understood, and find the words to capture what is most meaningful to them. Thus, they had an affirming experience in which they variously felt empowered, liberated, grateful, or even excited using both of their languages. Using both languages also had major effects on how the therapeutic process was experienced. It enabled participants to discuss deeper issues and reach new insights, for instance, and to experience sessions as smooth and efficient. It also enabled a safer, more comfortable therapeutic environment in which to do deeper work. (Pérez‐Rojas et al., 2019, p. 250)
Asking children to translate information is common in many communities with high immigrant populations when psychological, medical, and/or legal professionals speak only one language and do not work in clinics with bilingual services. Even when it is necessary, this practice can have devastating consequences: (a) it can create stress within the parent–child relationship; (b) children usually lack the vocabulary to serve as effective interpreters; (c) children may be placed in a situation where they are privy to confidential medical or psychiatric information about their relatives; and (d) children may be unfairly burdened with emotional responsibilities that only adults should carry (Coleman, 2003). In 2008, California Assembly Bill 775 was introduced to ban the use of children as interpreters. Furthermore, the federal government has acknowledged that not providing adequate interpretation for client populations is a form of discrimination.
The National Council on Interpreting in Health Care (2005) has published national standards for interpreters of health care that address issues of cultural awareness and confidentiality. These standards are based upon a number of important findings derived from focus groups of immigrants (Ngo‐Metzger et al., 2003). First, nearly all immigrants interviewed expressed a preference for professional translators rather than family members. They wanted translators who were knowledgeable and respectful of their cultural customs. Second, using family members to interpret—especially children—was negatively received in light of their inability to translate adult communications effectively. Third, discussing very personal or familial issues was often very uncomfortable (shame, guilt, and other emotional reactions) when a family member acted as the interpreter. Last, there was great concern that interpretation by a family member could be affected by the family dynamics or vice versa. Some general guidelines for mental health professionals in selecting and working with professional interpreters are as follows:
Make sure that the interpreter speaks the same dialect of a particular language as the client.
Monitor carefully whether the interpreter and client appear to have significant cultural or social differences.
Establish a degree of familiarity with your interpreter; they should be understanding and comfortable with your therapeutic style.
Use the same interpreter consistently with the
