and near‐contemporary eras. Substantial shifts occurred in the conceptual frameworks that were proposed, tested, and revised and in the modes of inquiry and statistical tools that were used to gather, analyze, and interpret data. Collectively, these innovations transformed nearly every aspect of scientific endeavor including the conceptualization of social developmental phenomena, the formulation of research aims and hypotheses, the design of investigations, the analysis and interpretation of empirical data, and ultimately, the expansion of knowledge.
The discipline also was transformed by the many methodological and analytic advances that occurred throughout the modern and near‐contemporary eras. In addition to those detailed above, other significant innovations shaped the discipline’s progress. Although not a comprehensive account, the following deserve mention. Great strides were made in the development and utilization of neurobiological and psychophysiological assessments (Adrian et al., 2011; Vaillancourt, 2018). The use of these tools became widespread and not only extended existing lines of inquiry but also precipitated new avenues of investigation. Refinements in twin‐study methodologies advanced knowledge about genetic‐environmental contributions to children’s social development (Brendgen, 2014; Boivin et al. 2013), as did progress in molecular genetic research, including technology that enabled the identification of specific genes and gene–environment interactions (Caspi et al., 2002; Rutter, 2006). The emergence of social network theory, and associated measurement and analytic innovations, added a new dimension to research on the social structure and organization of children’s peer groups (Burk et al., 2007; DeLay et al., 2021). Multilevel modeling (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) influenced the way developmental scientists analyzed nested or clustered data, such as when variable relations (e.g., strength of association, predictive efficacy) were hypothesized to differ by social contexts or strata (e.g., categorical variables such as schools, socio‐economic status [SES] groups).
Many sociocultural issues and crises arose during this era that shaped research on children’s social development. Beyond the issues detailed herein, the following were among the most influential: (a) racial, ethnic, and sexual diversity (e.g., minority/non‐minority status, prejudice and discrimination, ethnic and bicultural identity; Douglas & Umaňa‐Taylor, 2015; Fuligni & Tisak, 2014; Rivas‐Drake et al., 2014), (b) assimilation and acculturation of immigrant, migrant, and refugee children (e.g., risks, acculturative stress, resilience; Böhlmark, 2018; Ismail, 2019; Rogers‐Sirin et al., 2014), (c) gender development and transitions (e.g., transgender children, gender dysphoria, gender reassignment; Di Cegli, 2014; Ristori & Steensma, 2016; Steensma & Cohen‐Kettenis, 2015), (d) drug abuse (e.g., exposure in‐utero, Bandstra et al., 2010; Behnke et al., 2013; child and adolescent drug use, Patrick & Schulenberg, 2014; Susman et al., 2008), (d) reproductive trends and sexual development (e.g., delayed childbearing; adolescent pregnancy, Balasch & Gratacos, 2012; Geronimus, 2003; LGBTQ youth and LGBTQ parents, Farr et al., 2010; Rosario & Schrimshaw, 2013), (f) rearing alternatives and disparities (e.g., adoption, foster care; poverty, SES differences; Grotevant & McDermott, 2014; Lawrence et al., 2006; Aber et al., 2007; Letourneau et al., 2013), (g) pathways to deviance and criminality (e.g., gangs, delinquency, peer deviancy training; Allen et al., 2019; Allen et al., 2002; Bradshaw et al., 2013; Ryan et al., 2010), and (h) religious and spiritual development (e.g., religiosity; religious socialization, Bartkowski et al., 2008; Carothers et al., 2005; Hardy & Carlo, 2005).
In conclusion, readers are encouraged to contemplate a disclaimer and a recommendation. The scientific study of children’s social development has had a long history and only a portion of its recent innovations and achievements were profiled in this chapter. Given this discipline’s breadth, complexity, and longevity, it was necessary to adopt a macro perspective; consideration of specific conceptual advances within the many subdomains of social development exceeded the scope of this chapter. For this reason, readers are encouraged to consult other sources that provide a more in‐depth, detailed overview and analysis of the social development discipline and its history (e.g., chapters in this volume; Clarke‐Stuart & Parke, 2014).
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