government policy that provides nutritional programs for school children and the disadvantaged contending with food insecurity. It is the story of inequitable federal production and income programs and well-intentioned and often successful conservation and environmental programs that benefit urban and rural America. The history of American agriculture is complex with many parts, the synthesis of which enables us to better understand the American experience.
The contributors to this book constitute a gathering of emerging and established scholars who have written accessible and astute chapters on a multiplicity of topics to provide readers with an introduction to their subject. Each chapter offers readers a place to begin their own pursuit of American agricultural history, whether in general or regarding the subject under consideration. The following collection of thirty-one original chapters and an extensive bibliography will enable readers to gain an understanding of American agricultural history across region and time as well as focus on specific subjects, themes, and issues. In the past, many scholars who have written about the topics in this collection analyzed political, social, and economic events to give their histories substance, form, and meaning. In the twenty-first century these subjects often are understood through new interdisciplinary lenses of race, class, and gender as well as the environment that give greater breadth and depth to our understanding of America’s agricultural past.
The contents of these chapters begin in 8000 bce and range to the third decade of the twenty-first century. Specifically, they provide a narrative summary and a critical examination of the historical works upon which the authors have based their assessments. Each chapter will prove suggestive for further reading and research. By so doing, the chapters offer a comprehensive overview of critical areas in American agricultural history and, as such, will be useful for introductory students, experienced scholars, and general readers as well as teachers, journalists, public officials, and policy-makers who want a brief survey of specific topics in field-defining chapters in American agricultural history.
These chapters are informative, challenging, and interpretive. Several touch on similar subjects but provide different points of view. Others offer analysis of newly developing areas for research, such as the arts, urban and organic farming, and the environment. Still others assess the gendered nature of American agriculture, as well as matters of race, ethnicity, and power, and still others delve into the world of agribusiness from the meatpacking plants to migrant labor to the marketing of new products, including foods, at home and abroad. Others trace the origin and development of agricultural politics and policies, while others describe changes in science, technology, and government regulations.
We hope that this book will provide a succinct and solid foundation for understanding American agricultural history and offer new insights and fresh, innovative directions and ideas for further research. It is, of course, a superb reference volume for the topics discussed. Moreover, this collection provides an assessment of nearly a century of scholarship written by historians, political scientists, economists, geographers, anthropologists, sociologists, and environmentalists, among others, to constitute a book of chapters that is foundational to the study of American agricultural history.
It has been my privilege to have been invited to organize this collection of chapters and to work with these talented scholars from many disciplines to provide a usable book on the history of American agriculture. Although I would have liked to include additional subjects, any substantive omissions only prove that the field is complex, wide-ranging, and ever expansive. New topics for research and writing are limited only by the imagination, skill, and knowledge of anyone interested in America’s agricultural past. I am confident that these chapters will provide a usable, accessible, and suggestive reference for anyone desiring to learn about American agricultural history. More importantly, I hope this book will enable all readers to understand the integral importance of our agricultural past to the American experience.
Chapter 1 NATIVE AMERICAN AGRICULTURE BEFORE EUROPEAN CONTACT
Gayle Fritz
The history of food production in North America before European contact is deep and diverse, with traditions that vary geographically and culturally. Archaeologists, historians, geographers, botanists, and agronomists have studied pre-Columbian agriculture for more than a century, and it remains a widely discussed topic in textbooks and scholarly publications. Members of the general public are also intrigued by information about past Native American farming. These studies, after all, reveal where some of our foods came from and how people grew crops in challenging environments without metal tools or modern mechanical devices. The past might even hold clues to help us cope with issues such as climate change and to explore alternative methods to the low-diversity, high-energy input systems practiced by most American farmers today.
Eastern North America was one of the world’s independent centers of plant domestication (Bellwood 2005; Smith 2011; Langlie et al. 2014). Thousands of years before the arrival of maize, kidney beans, or Mexican squashes, a local squash and a group of native seed-bearing plants were domesticated, constituting the Eastern Agricultural Complex (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). The local, eastern squash and sunflowers survive to this day as popular food crops, but most Eastern Agricultural Complex crops fell out of Native American cuisines several centuries prior to the earliest written records, or became such minor foods that they were not included in archival accounts. These “lost crops” have only recently gained the respect they deserve as pre-maize staples and plants whose nutritional properties make them candidates for de-extinction (Mueller et al. 2017; Mueller, White, and Szilagyi 2019).
Figure 1.1 Map of North America showing locations of sites mentioned in text. The area enclosed inside the dotted oval line is the core region within which early Native American farmers grew Eastern Agricultural Complex crops. Map by and with the permission of Kelly Ervin.
Maize was domesticated in southern Mexico no later than 7000 years ago (Blake 2015). Maize that spread into eastern North America seems to have come across the Plains from the Southwest, where it was grown by at least 2100 BCE. Although maize agriculture in the Southwest was not preceded by production of locally domesticated crops, farmers in this arid zone developed effective water management systems and strategies of situating fields in the most optimal locations (Cordell and McBrinn 2012). They also selected and bred drought-hardy landraces to comprise distinctive regional crop complexes. In the Hohokam region of southern and central Arizona, large-scale irrigation canals directed water to fields from permanent rivers, while agave plants were grown in extensive rockpile fields along lower slopes of hillsides (Fish and Fish 2014).
Northwest Coast and Interior Plateau societies, long classified as non-agricultural fisher-hunter-gatherers, are now recognized for intricate landscape management practices, including cultivation, that increased the productivity of staple root crops, berries, and other plant foods (Peacock and Turner 2000; Deur and Turner 2005). It is difficult to date the antiquity of these strategies, but there is no doubt that they predate European influence. Combined archaeological and ethnobotanical studies that include authors who belong to Canadian First Nations and US Native American communities expand our knowledge about when and where early residents of the Pacific Northwest applied these methods and how their coastal gardens and upland garden-like meadows fit into long-term cultural trajectories in this densely populated region.
I begin this chapter with a review of plant domestication in eastern North America’s Midwest riverine area, focusing first on the Eastern Agricultural Complex, and moving forward in time to maize-based agriculture. The next section is devoted to crops and farmers in the Southwest, where both regional diversity and changes through time are reflected in the archaeological record. In the following section, I cover the Pacific Northwest, summarizing evidence for landscape domestication that included
