and flexed hindlimbs, the typical decerebellate posture. While the age of onset is prior to four months in most cases, some animals may not show signs of disease until two to two‐and‐a‐half years of age. In some cases where the disease progression is minimal or very slow, some animals can learn to compensate for their disabilities. Cerebellar abiotrophy can develop in the cat but has been less well documented. A single case report has described adult‐onset cerebellar cortical abiotrophy with retinal degeneration in a domestic shorthaired cat (Joseph 2011). If observed and examined carefully, the clinical signs associated with cerebellar degeneration should be readily differentiated from primary behavioral problems.
Lysosomal storage diseases are relatively rare genetic defects that are characterized by progressive neuronal degeneration. They are most likely to occur in purebred animals with a history of inbreeding in the affected line. Animals born with lysosomal storage diseases are normal at birth, with clinical signs usually developing during the first year of life. Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is one of the storage diseases that can appear in adult animals. Case reports of dachshunds with this condition have reported dogs developing the signs at three, five, and seven years of age (Cummings and de LaHunta 1977; Vandevelde and Fatzer 1980). Early signs may include ataxia, disorientation, weakness, and behavioral changes, but, with time, affected individuals will suffer vision loss, progressive motor and cognitive decline, and seizures.
4.6.2.5 Inflammatory Conditions
Clinical signs will vary with the site of the brain inflammation and may be acute or chronic. A progressive, acute disease process is most typical. Neurological deficits seen with inflammation may be diffuse, focal, or multifocal. Encephalitis or parenchymal central nervous inflammation may present with depression, stupor, coma, or other types of altered consciousness. Blindness, ataxia, seizures, and other behavioral changes may also be seen. Box 4.3 lists some of the more common infectious and parasitic causes of central nervous system signs in dogs and cats.
4.6.3 Urogenital Disorders
Inappropriate elimination is a common behavioral complaint for pet owners, but it is also often a primary sign of a medical condition. Distinguishing the two and/or recognizing when a medical condition exists at the same time as learned behavior (or a failure of house training) can be challenging but will be critical to solving the problem. Box 4.4 lists some of the more common reasons for dogs and cats to soil the house with urine. Regardless of the species, the first challenge is to observe the animal and attempt to determine if it has voluntary control over urination some of the time, all of the time, or none of the time, as this will help narrow down the list of differential diagnoses.
Box 4.3 Infectious and Parasitic Causes of Central Nervous System Signs in Dogs and Cats
Feline infectious peritonitis
Feline leukemia virus
Toxoplasmosis
Canine distemper virus
Rabies
Fungal infections
Protozoal infections
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Parasite migrations
Dirofilariasis
Ascarid larval migrans
Cuterebriasis
4.6.3.1 Urinary Incontinence
Incontinence is the failure of voluntary control of micturition (urination), with either a constant or intermittent, unconscious passage of urine. Several different medical conditions can result in urinary incontinence. Disorders of micturition are generally divided into two types: neurogenic and non‐neurogenic. Some animals can experience urinary incontinence some of the time and still have voluntary control of urination at other times. This is most likely to occur with non‐neurogenic conditions.
Behaviorally, incontinence can appear differently, ranging from constant dribbling, leaking during activities with abdominal push (getting up from lying down, jumping up, stretching, changing positions), leaking only when sleeping, intermittent dribbling while maintaining the ability to signal and void, and/or sometimes appearing to be under conscious control. Diagnosis may require a complete history, comprehensive physical examination including palpation of the distended and empty urinary bladder, a digital rectal examination, a neurologic examination, and a urinalysis. Obtaining a complete history in the shelter setting can be difficult or impossible, especially if the relinquishing owner is not forthcoming about the pet not being house trained or litterbox trained, fearing that the information may prevent adoption and/or result in euthanasia. Observation of the pet for postural changes during urination can be helpful in identifying the etiology of the problem. If an animal assumes the postures associated with elimination (squatting, lowering of pelvic limbs, tail position, ear position, etc.) then one can assume that the elimination is conscious. It is important to remember that these elimination processes do not always occur alone, and there may be several etiologies underlying a problem behavior. There may be neurological, infectious, anatomical, and/or behavioral components contributing to the incontinence. When this is the case, treating only one etiology is not likely to result in a discontinuation of the incontinence. Each will need to be addressed separately for the best results.
Box 4.4 Medical Causes of Urinary Housesoiling in Dogs and Cats
Increased volume (polyuria)
Renal disease, hepatic disease, hypercalcemia, pyometra, Cushing’s disease, diabetes mellitus, or insipidus
Increased frequency of urination (pollakiuria)
Urinary tract infection, urinary calculi, bladder tumors
Painful urination (dysuria)
Arthritis, urinary tract infection, urinary calculi, prostatitis
Reduced control (incontinence)
Neurologic damage; spinal or peripheral nerve
Sphincter incompetence or impairment
Cranial/impairment of central control (tumors, infections, etc.)
Sensory decline
Cognitive dysfunction syndrome
Altered mobility
Neuromuscular, orthopedic disease
Medications
Steroids, diuretics
Marking
Increased anxiety due to endocrinopathy
Hormonal (e.g., androgen‐producing
