78 and 79–83 together form the second *Asaphite sub-group, and like Psalms 73–77 they suggest a similar structure and a number of internal correspondences. As for structure, Psalm 78 is a psalm of instruction, like 73; 79–80 are both laments concerning the destruction of Jerusalem, like 74; 81–82 ask questions about injustice and the permanency of God’s abode in Zion, like 75–76; and 83 is an individual lament, like 77. So this repetitive arrangement uses the two themes of the judgement of God and yet confidence in God’s presence in Zion—themes which were prevalent in the eighth and seventh-century prophets. Even the first and last psalms of the entire twelve-psalm Asaphite collection echo it as well (see 50:2–3 and 83:17–18, where ‘God Most High’ is a familiar name for God in relation to Jerusalem).85 Furthermore, Psalm 78, with its overall theme of the memory of God appealing to the memory of the people, plays a critical part at the heart of the Asaphite psalms, just as Psalm 89, with its similar theme of divine and human remembering and forgetting, plays a critical part at the conclusion to the *Korahite collection. So in this intricately formed collection, the first stage of reception, namely the placing of certain psalms within a particular group of psalms, is clearly evident.
Each psalm in this latter collection is also linked to its neighbour by specific themes and vocabulary. Examples include the shepherding imagery at the end of Psalm 77 and the end of Psalm 78; the concern with David and the Temple at the end of Psalm 78 and the beginning of Psalm 79; the shepherding image, again, at the end of Psalm 79 and the beginning of Psalm 80, with the plaintive cry in each, ‘Why?’ (79:10 and 80:13); the Israel/Joseph references in 81:5,6 echoing 80:2; and the shared concern about gods and mortals in Psalms 82:6 and 83:19 which is also a challenge as to who is the ‘true god’, where in 82:6 the deities fall down as dead and in 83:10–11 the nations fall down, defeated. Yet again, this first stage of reception through compilation does not seem to be accidental.
Psalm 78: A Didactic Psalm about God’s Judgement on His People
It would also appear that Psalm 78 has been intentionally placed next to Psalm 77. Just as Psalm 77 ended with Moses and Aaron leading the people ‘like a flock’ (verse 29), Psalm 78 ends with David as the shepherd of his people (verse 71). Psalm 77:1 begins by asking God to hear; 78:1 asks by asking the people to do so. And just as Ps. 77:5 and 11 (Hebrew verses 6 and 12) reflect on God’s mighty deeds ‘of old’ (mi-qedem) so in 78:2 the psalmist will speak of them too (also using qedem). The story in Psalm 78:11 is about the same mighty ‘acts’ (pele’) as God’s ‘work’ as in 77:12, using the same Hebrew word with a different ending (pile’eka). Similarly we read again of the mighty waters (77:16, 19; 78:13, 16, 20), of God’s ‘redeeming’ his people (77:15 and 78:35) who are addressed again as Jacob (78:5, 21, 31, 71 and 77:15), and who in Ps. 78:52 are led ‘like a flock’ (ka‘eder), as in 77:20 (ca-ṣo’n).
Despite these connections, Psalm 78 is clearly different: it is not a lament, nor even an epic poem; it is closer to the speeches of Moses in Deuteronomy, except it is expressed more obviously in poetry, and the key focus of its seven strophes (ending at verses 9, 17, 32, 40, 56, 65) is the importance of ‘remembering’ and learning lessons from the past (verses 8, 39). Pavan argues that Psalm 78 is the only *Asaphite psalm with a consistent focus on ‘remembering’ and this explains its central position not only within the eleven psalms forming the Asaphite collection, but also within Book Three as a whole.86 The order of ‘remembering’ is not chronological: it starts with the arrival in Canaan (verses 9–39), then returns to the plagues (verses 42–51: here only seven, rather than ten), then moves forward to the wilderness wanderings (verses 52–55) and finishes with the time of the judges (verses 56–66). Unlike any of the previous psalms in Book Three, it is interested in David (verses 67–72). From this psalm onwards Book Three moves towards an increasing concern for David and Zion.
Jewish reception tends to view the psalm in its entirety, whilst Christian reception prefers to isolate separate verses. As with most of the Asaphite psalms, Jewish reception is more reflective and pessimistic. The whole psalm is seen as a ‘parable’—as a story about the Law.87 The theme of exile is assumed and this is read in the light of the giving of the laws, and Israel’s failure to keep them, although the ending proclaims positively that only David and his seed are the true Torah rulers of Israel.88 Some Jewish commentators note some positive elements in the psalm: the men of the wilderness, despite their transgressions, are still seen as ‘giants of faith’, and the miracles testify to the Merciful God, who, even without evening sacrifice (verse 38) can still forgive iniquity.89
Christian readings tend to view the psalm in the light of the Jews’ rejection of Christ, although the church is exhorted to learn from these lessons as well.90 For example, in the New Testament, 1 Cor. 10:8 uses the historical reflections in the psalm (using here verse 18) to exhort the early Christians to repentance. 1 *Clement 15 also uses Psalm 78 (amongst its several citations) about the church’s need ‘to be joined to those who are ‘peaceful, and not to those who pretend to wish for it’; *Justin Martyr makes the same appeal in his Dial. 27.4; 48.2; 80.4; and 140.2. The psalm is thus used in part as practical instruction and in part as allegory. The citation of verses 24–25 in the ‘bread discourse’ in John 6:31—partly using the same Exodus typology—encouraged commentators such as *Augustine to comment: ‘Let us turn back to the one who performed these miracles. He himself is the bread that came down from heaven… for people to eat the bread of angels, the Lord of angels became a human being… if he had not become this, we would not have his flesh…’ 91
But above all, it is the reference to the didactic and even parabolic nature of the psalm in verses 1–2 (heightened by the Greek translation of the Hebrew word mashal in verse 2 as parabolais) which gave Christians the license to allegorise. (This has been the case with all of Psalms 73–77; it is simply made more explicit here.) Matt. 13:35 cites Ps. 78:2 to illustrate the theory of parables; from this, the early fathers also had much to say on these two verses. *Clement of Alexandria, for example, uses these verses as key texts in Miscellanies 5.25.1 where the references to ‘parable’ and ‘dark sayings of old’ are seen as a witness to Jesus, the eternal word, the Logos, who is eternally present in the psalms and able to unlock for us enigmatic truths.92 (This is a different but related view of the expanded heading to the psalm provided in the *Targum: ‘The insight of the Holy Spirit, by the hands of Asaph’.) *Eusebius reads the psalm in a similar *prosopological way as Augustine: the psalmist begins by speaking in the name of Christ; and Christ ends it by speaking in the name of the Church. So Ps. 78:1–2 is ‘the voice of the prophet’ (i.e. Asaph) through whom Christ is speaking. In all these readings the ‘hidden things’ in the psalm are brought to light through the person of Christ. The dividing of the sea in verse 14 is now a reference to the bringing of ‘spiritual Israel’ (the church) through the waters of baptism; the cloud in verse 14 speaks of the incarnation of Christ, and the fire, to that latter day of judgement; the smitten rock in verse 16 is Jesus Christ crucified, out of whose side flowed living water. The manna in verses 24–25 speaks of Christ descending from heaven to give us the food of angels; the water turned to blood in verse 44 is a reference to the new covenant; and the ‘enemy’s hand’ in verse 61 refers to Judas and Pilate.93 In some cases this led commentators such as *Luther to accuse the Jews of trusting too much in the ‘temporality’ of their Law (using Ps. 78:5, ‘He has established a decree in Jacob…’) rather than seeing the eternal covenant made manifest in Christ.94
Nevertheless the use of this psalm for penitential worship, in both faiths, is clear. In Jewish tradition, in the weekday evening service according to the rite of the ninth-century Babylonian liturgist Amram Gaon, verse 38 is used after Ps. 22:10 and the *Kaddish, to be followed again by Ps. 20:10. Preceded by Psalm 134, this develops the theme of repentance and the mercy of God.95 The psalm as a whole is read in Christian tradition as an exhortation for repentance, and is part of the *Commination service, concerned with the judgement of God, in the *BCP.
Perhaps the most intriguing reading is of verse
