retain verbal information remains elemental throughout the lifespan as much learning and social interaction requires adequate verbal learning and memory ability. Therefore, the assessment of verbal memory is an essential component of clinical and neuropsychological evaluations. This is particularly relevant for evaluations of individuals with known or suspected cognitive or language impairments. Many developmental, neurological, and psychiatric disorders involve disruption or impairment of memory processes (e.g., attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, dementia, traumatic brain injury). Although some areas of memory decline normally with age (Salthouse, 1996; Tromp, Dufour, Lithfous, Pebayle, & Després, 2015), the prevalence of memory disorders increases with age and memory complaints are a frequent concern cited by older adults. Evaluation of memory processes can assist in differentiating normative development and decline across the lifespan from memory deficits related to insidious origins.
The California Verbal Learning Test, Third Edition (CVLT3; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 2017) provides a detailed look into verbal learning and memory processes for individuals ages 16–90. It introduced some major scoring changes and updates from the CVLT, second edition (CVLT-II; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 2000). However, since the CVLT-II is still widely used in clinical and research settings, both editions are described in this book. The CVLT children's version (CVLT-C; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 1994) provides a similar assessment of memory for individuals ages 5–16. This book provides an easy-to-use reference for individuals learning the essentials of administration, scoring, and interpretation of the CVLT3, CVLT-II, or the CVLT-C. It maintains the direct, systematic approach to presenting material that is characteristic of the Essentials series. In addition, guidelines for selecting the best CVLT product for a specific client and administrative and interpretive guidelines are provided. The latest research on the CVLT products and on verbal memory processes is also included throughout the chapters to assist in applying results obtained with the most recent CVLT editions.
Essentials of California Verbal Learning Test: CVLT-C, CVLT-II, & CVLT3 covers topics that emphasize the appropriate administration, scoring, interpretation, and application of each test. Each chapter includes several “Rapid Reference,” “Caution,” or “Don't Forget” boxes to highlight important points for easy reference and clarification. At the end of each chapter, a short “Test Yourself” quiz is provided to help you solidify what you have read. The information in this book is provided to help you understand the nuances of each of the CVLT instruments and become a proficient user.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
Although the concept of investigating the processes underlying memory is standard in memory assessment instruments today, at the time the original CVLT (Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 1987) was developed in 1987 it was a novel approach to assessment. The authors combined research and clinical experience with patients with memory deficits to create a novel approach to assessing learning and memory processes. Memory deficits were linked to specific tasks within a 16-word memory recall and recognition test. The 16 words were derived from four semantic categories, allowing the examinee to group words semantically as an aid to recalling the words. This approach allows examination of not only how much an individual can learn and retain but also the strategies used to learn and recall information and the types of memory errors made. These additional measures provide detailed information on the processes involved in learning and memory to aid in diagnosis and intervention planning.
In the original CVLT, the examiner read a Monday shopping list that contained 16 items to the examinee. The 16 items consisted of four words from four different semantic categories (tools, fruit, clothing, spices, and herbs). The Monday shopping list was repeated in five learning trials, followed by an interference list trial. A Tuesday shopping interference list also comprised 16 words from four categories. Two of the categories overlapped with categories from the Monday list and two were novel categories. Following recall of the Tuesday list, the examinee was asked to recall the Monday list in both a free-recall and a cued-recall trial. During the cued-recall trial, the examiner provided each of the four semantic categories and asked the examinee to name the items from each. The examiner than waited 20 min before administering delayed free- and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed recognition trial (see Figure 1.1). The examiner was encouraged to administer nonverbal tasks during this 20-min delay. Scores derived on the CVLT assessed attention, learning strategies, recall accuracy, interference effects, recall errors, and recognition. The original normative sample consisted of 273 neurologically intact individuals (104 males, 169 females) recruited from other research studies being conducted at the time of data collection.
Since 1987, three revisions and expansions of the CVLT have been published, although the administration has remained remarkably stable. The expansion and evolution of the CVLT reflect the growing influence and use of the process approach to memory assessment. Its wide use in research on memory also ensures several editions of the CVLT will remain in use for a long time. The currently available editions include the CVLT3 (published in 2017), the CVLT-II (published in 2000), and the CVLT-C (published in 1994). Each of the editions reflects the knowledge and theories of memory at the time of its development as well as the developmental needs of the population assessed. This chapter provides an overview of the content of each of the currently available CVLT instruments, and later chapters provide a review of the research literature related to memory and learning as measured by the CVLT.
| Learning trials | Interference trial | Short-delay | Long-delay (follows 20-min delay) | Yes/No recognition | Forced-choice recognition (follows 10-min delay)a |
| Trial 1 Free RecallTrial 2 Free RecallTrial 3 Free RecallTrial 4 Free RecallTrial 5 Free Recall | List B Free Recall | Short-Delay Free RecallShort-Delay Cued Recall | Long-Delay Free RecallLong-Delay Cued Recall | Yes/No Recognition | Forced-Choice Recognition |
| a Only on CVLT-II and CVLT3. | |||||
Figure 1.1 CVLT-C, CVLT-II standard and alternate, and CVLT3 standard and alternate forms structure.
OVERVIEW AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CVLT-C
The CVLT was expanded to younger ages with the publication of the CVLT-C. It not only extended the age downward to 5, it also modified the content to be more relevant for children. The word list was shortened to 15 words derived from three semantic categories. The semantic categories reflect categories common in childhood. Two of these categories overlap with the semantic categories contained in the adult forms. Similar to the administration of the original CVLT, the child is read the list of 15 words across five learning trials, followed by an interference list trial. Just as in the original CVLT, the lists are presented as Monday and Tuesday shopping lists. Following the interference trial, the child recalls the original list in both short-delay free- and cued-recall trials. The examiner then completes nonverbal testing for 20 min before administering long-delay free- and cued-recall trials, as well as a delayed recognition trial (see Figure 1.1). All trials are required to derive the primary scores. Scores derived on the CVLT-C assess auditory attention, learning strategies and characteristics, recall accuracy and consistency, proactive and retroactive interference, recall errors, and recognition.
A T score is derived for the learning trials (Trials 1–5 Total) with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. The process scores provided in the CVLT-C provide detailed information about the learning and memory processes required to recall verbal information. For these scores, age-corrected z scores are provided with
