of data, on the other hand, we might well adjust our focus of attention and concentrate on our interlocutor’s usage, take note of his hesitations and repetitions, the peculiarites of his pronunciation and so on. The terms we have in English for referring to performance reflect these two aspects of behaviour. An expression like ‘She speaks indistinctly’, for example, refers to usage and an expression like ‘He speaks persuasively’ refers to use. I shall return to the relevance of the usage/use distinction to a definition of the so-called ‘language skills’ in Chapter 3.
Although there is a natural coincidence of usage and use in normal language behaviour, these two aspects of performance tend to be treated separately by people concerned with the description and the teaching of languages. Thus the grammarian illustrates the abstract rules of the system of the language he is describing by devising sentences in isolation which manifest these rules. The language teacher designing materials has also generally been inclined to concentrate on usage: the common practice is to select and organize language items with a view to demonstrating how the rules of the system can be manifested through sentences. There has been less concern with demonstrating how such rules can be realized for communicative purposes as use. So when the teacher introduces a sentence like:
A book is on the table.
he does so to manifest the operation of a set of rules for sentence formation. He is not offering it as an example of a meaningful act of communication. In fact, utterances of sentences of this kind are of relatively rare occurrence as instances of use.
1.3 Usage and use in classroom presentation
I want now to consider some examples of how language is presented in the classroom and how this presentation, in concentrating on usage, may sometimes involve an inappropriate use of language. The following is an example of a familiar oral drill in which the learner is required to repeat a sentence pattern by using different ‘call-words’
What is going on here? We have a series of responses to a verbal cue but these responses are not replies in any normal sense. The pupils are demonstrating their knowledge of usage by manipulating the sentence pattern but they are not doing so for any other purpose.
Let us now adjust the drill so that we get what appears to be a more normal question and answer sequence:
Here we can recognize that some account is taken of use. To begin with, for the pupils to give an answer there must be a book on the table and a bag on the floor: there must be some simple situation to refer to. The pupils are not simply spinning sentences out without any reference to what the words mean, as they are in the first drill. But although there is some concern for use in this respect, it is still usage which has the dominant emphasis. Although the pupils’ response is a reply to a question and not just a reaction to a prompt, the form of the reply is inappropriate. We can compare the drill with the following exchanges where the replies take on a more normal appearance:
A: What is on the table?
B: A book.
A: Where is the bag?
B: On the floor.
Even in this form, however, the language cannot necessarily be regarded as demonstrating appropriate use. To see why this is so, we have to ask ourselves: ‘Why does A ask this question?’ If a book is seen to be on the table, and a bag seen to be on the floor, and if everybody is aware of the location of these objects, then why does A need to ask where they are? If there is a book on the table in front of the whole class, then, as has been pointed out, the question is contextualised to the extent that it refers to something outside language and is not just a manipulation of the language itself. But by the same token, the fact that there is a book on the table, visible to everybody, makes it extremely unnatural to ask if it is there. Thus the provision of a situation may lead away from usage in one respect but lead back to usage in another. Only if the pupils know that the teacher cannot see the bag and is genuinely looking for it does his question as to its whereabouts take on the character of natural use. The following classroom exchange, for example, would commonly take on this genuine quality of real communication:
We may say that the realization of language as use involves two kinds of ability. One kind is the ability to select which form of sentence is appropriate for a particular linguistic context. The second is the ability to recognize which function is fulfilled by a sentence in a particular communicative situation. Let us look again at our examples.
If this is part of a drill and there is a book on the table which everybody can see, then the teacher’s question is not fulfilling a normal function since in ordinary circumstances we do not ask questions about something we already know. So the teacher’s question and the pupils’ answer do not fulfil a communicative function in this particular situation. Furthermore, a question of this form does not normally require a response which takes the form of sentence which the pupils give, so their reply is not appropriate in this particular linguistic context. This exchange, then, illustrates both inappropriate function in relation to the situation and inappropriate form in relation to the context. Let us now consider a second example:
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