and the emperors interest in provincial affairs was shown by his personal assumption of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy, many changes were made. For example, the administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts. Human regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly enforced, the master was forbidden to put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of Justine; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves for immoral or gladiatorial purposes was forbidden. The public baths were kept under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service and mode of life. Among the magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian, the most impressive are the following: in Rome, the temples of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the Castel Sant’Angelo; and the pantheon of Agrippa.
Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men – poets, scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers – whom he alternately humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the equal of specialists. He was a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility.
The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, well summed up by Spartianus: “He was grave and gay, affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered around him the most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate toward his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency. Although he endeavoured to win the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his reign could be characterised as a “golden age.”
117. Portrait of Emperor Antoninus Pius, Roman, c. 15 °C.E. Marble. Staatliche Museen, Dresden.
118. Bust of Antinous, also called the “Mondragone Antinous”, Roman, c. 13 °C.E. Marble, height: 95 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.
119. Portrait of Young Faustina Minor, Roman, c. 147–148 C.E. Marble, height: 60 cm. Museo Capitolini, Rome.
Faustina, Annia Galeria, the younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She is accused by Dio Cassius and Capitolinus of gross profligacy, and was reputed to have instigated the revolt of Avidius Cassius against her husband. She died in 175 or 176 at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia, whither she had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan girls were founded in her honour, like those established by her father in honour of his wife, the elder Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple of Venus, and she was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome. From the fact that Aurelius was always devoted to her and was heartbroken at her death, it has been inferred that the unfavourable estimate of the historians is prejudiced or at least mistaken.
120. Portrait of Two Brothers, Fayum, Egypt, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Distemper painting on wood, diameter: 61 cm. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
121. Gilded Mummy Portrait of a Woman, Er-Roubayat, Egypt, Roman, c. 160–17 °C.E. Encaustic on limewood, 44.2 × 20 cm. The British Museum, London.
Discovered in Egypt in 1888 by Flinders Petrie, the portraits of the Fayoum are a series of representations dating back to the first century C.E. They represent the populations that crossed the Fayoum and these images remain an incontrovertible source of information on these civilizations. The hairstyle of the woman depicts the fashion from this epoch; she wears a gold leaf crown, a violet tunic bordered with bands of gold and a white coat. The quality of the portrait, the richness of the jewellery made of precious stones and the beauty of the dress indicates that the woman being represented was part of the upper class in this society.
122. Painted Mummy Cover of a Young Boy, Fayum, Egypt, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Encaustic on wood, 39.1 × 19.1 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
123. Portrait of Caius Julius Pacatianus, Vienne, France, Roman, 2nd century C.E. (body), 3rd century C.E. (head). Bronze, height: 210 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Continuing the tradition established by the Etruscans many centuries earlier, this bronze portrait statue represents an elder male, perhaps a statesman. Most likely meant for display in family’s home, or villa, this piece commemorates the “pater familias,” or high-ranking male family member. By the third century, the toga, worn by this figure, was not generally a quotidian garment. Instead, it was worn for ceremonial purposes, and signified the citizenship and importance of the wearer.
124. The Family of Septimius Severus, Roman, 20 °C.E. Tempera on wood, diameter: 30.5 cm. Staaliche Museen zu Berlin, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.
125. Portrait of Caracalla, Roman, 215–217 C.E. Marble, height: 72 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.
126. Portrait of Alexander Severus, Roman, 222–235 C.E. White marble, height: 23 cm. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
127. Bust of Commodus as Hercules, Roman, 180–193 C.E. Marble, height: 133 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.
This portrait of the Roman Emperor Commodus shows him in the guise of Heracles, the great hero of myth. Commodus was one of the more deranged and tyrannical emperors, and one of his follies was to imagine himself as Heracles. He changed his name to Heracles Romanus and forced the Senate to declare him a god. This portrait is in some ways typical of the portraiture of the time. It shows the emperor as young and bearded, which was the standard style since Hadrian. His face is given a classicising, elegant appearance, yet the hooded eyes were particular to Commodus and show this to be, at least to some degree, a likeness. The emperor’s hair and beard have finely-chiselled curls. Otherwise, however, the portrait is rather unusual. Commodus is draped in the lion skin worn by Heracles, held in place by the knotted front legs of the beast. He holds Heracles’ club in one hand, and the apples of the Hesperides, from the mythical labours of Heracles, in the other. Other than the lion skin, he is bare-chested, another sign of his supposed divinity.
128. The Elderly Fisherman, or “The Death of Seneca”, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Black marble and alabaster, height: 121 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.
129. Head of the Colossal Statue of Constantine, Basilica of Maxentius, Rome, Byzantine, 313–324 C.E. Marble, height: 260 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome.
130. Solidus
