of the Doctrine of Evolution—The Origin of New Species—Variation in Animals—The Amount of Variation in North American Birds—How New Species arise from a Variable Species—Definition and Origin of Genera—Cause of the Extinction of Species—The Rise and Decay of Species and Genera—Discontinuous Specific Areas, why Rare—Discontinuity of the Area of Parus Palustris—Discontinuity of Emberiza Schœniclus—The European and Japanese Jays—Supposed Examples of Discontinuity among North American Birds—Distribution and Antiquity of Families—Discontinuity a proof of Antiquity—Concluding Remarks.
In the preceding chapters we have explained the general nature of the phenomena presented by the distribution of animals, and have illustrated and defined the new geographical division of the earth which is found best to agree with them. Before we go further into the details of our subject, and especially before we attempt to trace the causes which have brought about the existing biological relations of the islands of the globe, it is absolutely necessary to have a clear comprehension of the collateral facts and general principles to which we shall most frequently have occasion to refer. These may be briefly defined as, the powers of dispersal of animals and plants under different conditions, such as geological and climatal changes, and the origin and development of species and groups by natural selection. This last is of the most fundamental importance, and its bearing on the dispersal of animals has been much neglected. We therefore devote the present chapter to its consideration.
As we have already shown in our first chapter that the distribution of species, of genera, and of families, present almost exactly the same general phenomena in varying degrees of complexity, and that almost all the interesting problems we have to deal with depend upon the mode of dispersal of one or other of these; and as, further, our knowledge of most of these groups, in the higher animals at least, is confined to the tertiary period of geology, it is therefore unnecessary for us to enter into any questions involving the origin of more comprehensive groups, such as classes or orders. This enables us to avoid most of the disputed questions as to the development of animals, and to confine ourselves to those general principles regulating the origin and development of species and genera which were first laid down by Mr. Darwin thirty years ago, and have now come to be adopted by naturalists as established propositions in the theory of evolution.
The Origin of New Species.—How, then, do new species arise, supposing the world to have been, physically, much as we now see it; and what becomes of them after they have arisen? In the first place we must remember that new species can only be formed when and where there is room for them. If a continent is fully stocked with animals, each species being so well adapted for its mode of life that it can overcome all the dangers to which it is exposed, and maintain on the average a tolerably uniform population, then, so long as no change takes place, no new species will arise. For every place or station is supposed to be filled by creatures in all respects adapted to surrounding conditions, able to defend themselves from all enemies, and to obtain food notwithstanding the rivalry of many competitors. But such a perfect balance of organisms nowhere exists upon the earth, and probably never has existed. The well-known fact that some species are very common, while others are very rare, is an almost certain proof that the one is better adapted to its position than the other; and this belief is strengthened when we find the individuals of one species ranging into different climates, subsisting on different food, and competing with different sets of animals, while the individuals of another species will be limited to a small area beyond which they seem unable to extend. When a change occurs, either of climate or geography, some of the small and ill-adapted species will probably die out altogether, and thus leave room for others to increase, or for new forms to occupy their places.
But the change will most likely affect even flourishing species in different ways, some beneficially, others injuriously. Or, again, it may affect a great many injuriously, to such an extent as to require some change in their structure or habits to enable them to get on as well as before. Now "variation" and the "struggle for existence" come into play. All the weaker and less perfectly organised individuals die out, while those which vary in such a way as to bring them into more harmony with the new conditions constantly survive. If the change of conditions has been considerable, then, after a few centuries, or perhaps even a few generations, one or more new species will be almost sure to be formed.
Variation in Animals.—To make this more intelligible to those who have not considered the subject, and to obviate the difficulty many feel about "favourable variations occurring at the right time," it will be well to discuss this matter a little more fully. Few persons consider how largely and universally all animals are varying. We know, however, that in every generation, if we could examine all the individuals of any common species, we should find considerable differences, not only in size and colour, but in the form and proportions of all the parts and organs of the body. In our domesticated animals we know this to be the case, and it is by means of the continual selection of such slight varieties to breed from that all our extremely different domestic breeds have been produced. Think of the difference in every limb, and every bone and muscle, and probably in every part, internal and external of the whole body, between a greyhound and a bull-dog! Yet, if we had the complete series of ancestors of these two breeds before us, we should probably find that in no one generation was there a greater difference than now occurs in the same breed, or sometimes even the same litter. It is often thought, however, that wild species do not vary sufficiently to bring about any such change as this in the same time; and though naturalists are well aware that this is a mistake, it is only recently that they have been able to adduce positive proof of their opinion.
The Amount of Variation in North American Birds.—An American naturalist, Mr. J. A. Allen, has made elaborate observations and measurements of the birds of the United States, and he finds a wonderful and altogether unsuspected amount of variation between individuals of the same species. They differ in the general tint, and in the markings and distribution of the colours; in size and proportions; in the length of the wings, tail, bill, and feet; in the length of particular feathers, altering the shape of the wing or tail; in the length of the tarsi and of the separate toes, and in the length, width, thickness, and curvature of the bill. These variations are very considerable, often reaching to one-sixth or one-seventh of the average dimensions, and sometimes more. Thus Turdus fuscescens (Wilson's thrush) varied in length of wing from 3.58 to 4.16 inches, and in the tail from 3.55 to 4.00 inches; and in twelve specimens, all taken in the same locality, the wing varied in length from 14.5 to 21 per cent., and the tail from 14 to 22.5 per cent. In Sialia sialis (the blue bird) the middle toe varied from .77 to .91 inch, and the hind toe from .58 to .72 inch, or more than 21.5 per cent. on the mean, while the bill varied from .45 to .56 inch in length, and from .30 to .38 inch in width, or about 20 per cent. in both cases. In Dendrœca coronata (the yellow-crowned warbler) the quills vary in proportionate length, so that the 1st, the 2nd, the 3rd, or the 4th, is sometimes longest; and a similar variation of the wing involving a change of proportion between two or more of the feathers is recorded in eleven species of birds. Colour and marking vary to an equal extent; the dark streaks on the under surface of Melospiza melodia (the American song-sparrow) being sometimes reduced to narrow lines. while in other specimens they are so enlarged as to cover the greater part of the breast and sides of the body, sometimes uniting on the middle of the breast into a nearly continuous patch. In one of the small spotted wood-thrushes, Turdus fuscescens, the colours are sometimes very pale, and the markings on the breast reduced to indistinct narrow lines, while in other specimens the general colour is much darker, and the breast markings dark, broad, and triangular. All the variations here mentioned occur between adult males, so that there is no question of differences of age or sex, and the pair last referred to were taken at the same place and on the same day.9
These interesting facts entirely support the belief in the variability of all animals in all their parts and organs, to an extent amply sufficient for natural selection to work with. We may, indeed, admit that these are extreme cases, and that the majority of species do not vary half or a quarter so much as shown in the examples quoted, and we shall still have ample variation for all purposes of specific modification. Instead of an extreme variation
These facts are taken from a memoir on
