our friends and families also provide explicit comments on our partners and have a conscious influence on our perceptions and behaviors as well.
Unfortunately, detailed data regarding entire social networks and how sexual attitudes and behaviors spread in networks have been very scarce, and most networks that have been studied over the past century have involved only thirty to three hundred people or so. Recognizing the importance of social networks and anticipating a need for data to study them and their role in sexual behavior and other phenomena (such as youth violence, occupational success, and so on), investigators in North Carolina, including sociologists Peter Bearman, Richard Udry, Barbara Entwisle, and Kathleen Harris, designed and launched an ongoing, nationwide social-network study of American adolescents in 1994.
Known as the Add Health study, this landmark survey was administered to a whopping 90,118 students in 145 junior-high and high schools all around the United States. About 27,000 of the students and their parents were selected for follow-up surveys in 1994, 1995, and then again in 2001. Hundreds of questions were included on the survey, addressing everything from feelings about friends and family, to participation in church and school clubs, to risky behaviors like taking drugs or engaging in unprotected sex. Each student was asked to identify up to ten friends (five male and five female), most of whom—crucially—were also in the sample. The study also collected information about people’s romantic partners. All of this allowed scientists to see for the first time, very large, detailed, and comprehensive social networks and to discern the precise architecture of a person’s social ties as it changed across time. We can use these data to identify who is at the center of the network and who is at the periphery, who is located in tightly knit cliques and who prefers to associate with several different groups.
Ties between parents and their adolescent children were critical in the transmission of norms and modeling of behavior. For instance, one study that used the Add Health data showed that girls with a close relationship with their fathers were less likely to become sexually active.22 However, much more important than parents are the peers in an adolescent’s network. Add Health studies have shown that the number of friends, the age and gender of those friends, and their academic performance all affect the onset of sexual activity.23 Friends’ religiosity also affects whether adolescents report having sex, and the effect is strongest in dense social networks, where the adolescents’ friends tend to be friends with one another.24
What these studies show is that sexual behavior can spread from person to person, and the impact the network has depends on how tightly interconnected people are. But sometimes the story is more complicated. Peter Bearman and his colleague Hannah Brückner explored “virginity pledges,” a phenomenon that grew out of a social movement sponsored by the Southern Baptist Church, where teens pledge to abstain from sex, typically until marriage.25 The initial results, accounting for a range of other influences, showed that pledging substantially and independently reduced the likelihood of sexual debut. However, a much more nuanced picture emerged when the investigators looked at the effect more carefully within the social context of each school.
In a small number of “open” schools, where most opposite-sex friendships and romantic ties occur with individuals outside the school, more pledgers indeed meant delayed sexual debut. Surprisingly, though, in “closed” schools, where most ties occur inside the school, more pledgers meant a greater likelihood of sexual debut. These findings suggest that the pledge movement is an identity movement and not solely about abstaining from sex. In closed schools, adhering to this movement might be beneficial (in terms of delaying sex) when one is in the minority, but if pledging becomes the norm, the psychological benefits of a unique identity are diminished, and the effect is lost. It’s not just the pledge itself that constrains behavior; it’s whether the pledge confers a unique status. Riding a motorcycle and wearing a black leather jacket emblazoned with a skull and crossbones may give you a special identity in a place where few people own motorcycles, but in a place where everyone rides a motorcycle, it may simply mean you like to save gas.
Of course, peer norms can also increase sexual behavior. In fact, peers are more likely to promote sex than discourage it. Adolescents who believe that their peers would look favorably on being sexually active are more likely to have casual, nonromantic sex.26 Engaging in oral sex with a partner can actually make one more popular among one’s friends.27 These kinds of peer pressures assuredly underlie the changing mores regarding oral sex seen among American teenagers in the late 1990s. And related studies in adults have shown that people with more partners also have more variety in their sex lives and that they “innovate” more in terms of sexual practices.28
Romantic and sexual practices as diverse as contraceptive use, anal sex, fertility decisions, and divorce are all strongly influenced by the existence of these behaviors within one’s network. For example, in a paper entitled “Is Having Babies Contagious?” economist Ilyana Kuziemko examined eight thousand American families followed since 1968 and found that the probability that a person will have a child rises substantially in the two years after his or her sibling has a child. The effect is not merely a shift in timing but an increase in the total number of children a person chooses to have.29 Similar effects have been documented in the developing world, where decisions about how many children to have and whether to use contraception spread across social ties.30
Конец ознакомительного фрагмента.
Текст предоставлен ООО «ЛитРес».
Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию на ЛитРес.
Безопасно оплатить книгу можно банковской картой Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, со счета мобильного телефона, с платежного терминала, в салоне МТС или Связной, через PayPal, WebMoney, Яндекс.Деньги, QIWI Кошелек, бонусными картами или другим удобным Вам способом.
