content; although not an aggressive oil,20 it has been suggested as being best not used during pregnancy.
Levisticum officinale – roots (lovage) 0.1–0.6%
An essential oil (reputed to be probably the most powerful natural flavour material ever encountered) is taken from the whole plant (above ground);21 the roots produce an absolute and an essential oil – the distilled root oil should be chosen for use in aromatherapy.
The plant above ground is credited with being an emmenagogue (mentioned by Mrs Grieve22 and Richard Mabey23). There is no reference to the root oil being emmenagogic in any herbal book of note, or documents on toxicity in the UK or in France. However, it is accredited with this property in one or two modern British and American books on aromatherapy; none says why.
Approximately half the oil is made up of chemicals called phthalides,24 about which not much is written or known. 3-butylidene phthalide in lovage oil is identical to a lactone found in another oil.25
Special Properties and Effects Detoxifying to the digestive system, lovage root essential oil is stimulating to the excretory and nervous systems, is anticatarrhal and expectorant.
Caution Lovage root may be a skin sensitizer due to its coumarin content.
Petroselinum crispum or P. sativum – leaves/seed (parsley – curly and flat leaved varieties respectively) up to 7% (seed); 0.02–0.3% (leaves)
Parsley, a favourite culinary herb, has an essential oil in both its leaves and its seeds (it can be difficult to ascertain whether leaf oil is exclusively from the leaves), and an extract can be made from its roots. Parsley is grown extensively in France for the production of dried leaves, which have to be of the highest quality and at their greenest. As a result, essential oil is usually extracted from second grade plants (the quality of the oil is not affected) or from a second cutting when the plants are starting to go to seed (altering the chemical structure of the oil). There is a good market for the seeds for cultivation and the surplus stock of older seeds is used for seed oil, which appears to be the more toxic because of the presence of the phenolic ethers myristicin (a neurotoxic hallucinogen) and apiole (a strong abortifacient). The aroma of the leaf oil (also containing myristicin) is much more like that of the herb itself and it is high in terpenes.
Special Properties and Effects Parsley leaf, or herb, oil is known mainly for its diuretic properties; it is also antispasmodic.
The seed oil is an emmenagogue, uterine tonic and an effective aid for circulatory troubles connected with menstruation. In strong dosage it is abortive and should not be used by pregnant women.26
Caution Unfortunately, many books give the effects of leaf and seed oil as the same. Also, many suppliers are not certain whether their oil is leaf or seed. Indeed, unless specified, leaf distillation can be from plants with some seed development. Only qualified aromatherapists should use parsley oil and even then, with great respect (there are other oils giving similar effects, which could be used instead).
Pimpinella anisum – seed (aniseed or green aniseed) 2–3%
Two plants have the common name aniseed – the one named above and Illicium verum (Chinese star anise – now in many supermarkets), from a totally different family. Three books each give a different name for this family – Illiciaceae, Magnolaceae and Schisandraceae! Both aniseeds appear to yield similar oils chemically, having a high content of the phenolic ether, trans-anethole (sometimes as high as 90 per cent in Pimpinella anisum), necessitating care in use, even though trans-anethole is less toxic than cis-anethole.
Special Properties and Effects Aniseed oils are antispasmodic, helpful to the respiratory system and stimulant to the reproductive system. Their hormonal action helps to regularize the menstrual cycle and increase the milk flow in breastfeeding women.
Caution Aniseed should be used with advice from an aromatherapist. It would be prudent not to use either oil on young children or during pregnancy.
Another member of the Illiaceae family, Illicium lanceolatum, has as its common name ‘Japanese star anise’, but this is poisonous.27
Asteraceae (or Compositae)
The flowers belonging to this family are daisy-like, each flowerhead being composed of many small flowers rather than petals (hence the name Compositae). Asteraceae may be easier to remember because that favourite and colourful garden flower, the aster, is a member of it. The plants from this family which most interest aromatherapists are the chamomiles, calendula (garden marigold) and tagetes (African marigold).
Family Properties and Effects The general properties which this family possess are antiseptic, soothing and anti-inflammatory to the skin and digestive system.
Caution There are ‘black sheep’ in the Compositae family, as all the artemisias, most of which are neurotoxic, belong to it. Because of their relatively high ketone or phenolic ether content artemisia oils are available in France only from pharmacies: wormwood (Artemisia absinthium – thujone); mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris – thujone), also known as armoise; tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus – estragole) are not generally used in aromatherapy in the UK and should not be made generally available.
Chamaemelum nobile, Chamomilla recutita and Ormenis mixta – flowerheads (chamomile) 1–1.7%
(See chapter 5 for other names for, and botanical differences between, these essential oils.)
Chamomile plants contain a colourless compound which decomposes during distillation to produce azulene, changing to a blue colour in the process.
Special Properties and Effects Because of its higher azulene content Chamomilla recutita is the most efficient in treating irritable or inflamed skin conditions. Chamaemelum nobile (containing a significant amount of esters) is favoured for gout sufferers and is undoubtedly the choice for children. Ormenis mixta, perhaps preferable for depression,28 contains more alcohols, and is sometimes called the poor man’s Roman chamomile as its price is lower.
FIGURE 4.2: German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita)
Tagetes glandulifera – flowers (tagetes) 0.2–0.4%
Tagetes is sometimes confused with calendula as both possess the common name of ‘marigold’ (chapter 5). It contains approximately 35–50 per cent of tagetone, a ketone, and its coumarin content makes
