Comanche, few as they were, quickly became disillusioned with their supposedly ideal new way of life. A year later, fewer than 200 warriors were left to battle in the Buffalo Hunters War of 1877.
COMANCHE CODE
During the Second World War, the U.S. Government had the idea of using the Comanche language as a “code” to befuddle the enemy Germans. In order to do this, 17 young men were trained in the language. Ironically, the language had nearly died out after Comanche children were placed in boarding schools in the 19th century where they were encouraged to speak English, and punished for speaking their native language.
CONCOMLY
A Chinook chief, Concomly extended a friendly welcome to the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805 when it reached him and his tribe at the mouth of the Columbia River where it entered the Pacific Coast. His daughter would go on to marry Duncan McDougal, head of the Astor expedition which sought to take over the country on behalf of the United States. Concomly liked to display his power; he must have been an awe-inspiring sight for the white men, since he traveled with a retinue of some 300 slaves, who went before him carpeting the ground with beaver skins.
Concomly was notoriously accused of being charged with a plan to massacre some soldiers at a nearby garrison and raid the stores. Although this was not proved, Concomly offered to show his allegiance to the Americans by fighting on their side against the British in 1812.
After his death, Concomly’s skull—which had been subject to the “flattening” procedure whereby the infant’s skull was shaped while the bones were still soft—was sent to Britain, and regarded as a curiosity. However, it was returned to the U.S. in 1952.
CONESTOGA HORSE
Horses rapidly became invaluable to the Native Americans, used for traveling long distances, for hunting, and as pack animals. The Conestoga was a heavy horse, bred in Pennsylvania in the 18th century, which had the blood of a Flemish carthorse along with a British breed. Able to carry and drag heavy loads, the Conestoga was used for pulling wagons.
CONESTOGA WAGON
The wagon, typically seen in Wild West and cowboy movies, has a framework of hoops over which canvas is draped to give cover and provide accommodation to passengers and goods. These are the wagons that were regularly seen moving slowly along as wagon trains, and drawn either by cattle or by half a dozen Conestoga horses, for which the wagon was named. The Native Americans called the wagon the “tipi wagon.”
CONFEDERACY
Also called an allegiance or league, a confederacy was a union of two or more tribes, perhaps for military or political purposes. The Iroquois Confederacy is a good example of just how powerful strength in numbers, and a unified aim, can be.
CORN
See Maize
CORNPLANTER
“It is my wish and the wishes of my people to live peaceably and quietly with you.”
1770s–1836
A renowned Seneca chief, Cornplanter was born to a Seneca mother and a Dutch father, a fur trader, in the Genesee River area of New York. Initially Cornplanter—whose name in Seneca approximated to “the planter” or “by which one plants”—did not know that his father was white; it was only after repeated teasing by other children that his mother told him the truth. His father, Johannes Abeel, was living in Albany, and so Cornplanter visited him. The visit was amicable, but Cornplanter came away empty-handed. Subsequently, fighting on the side of the British during the Revolutionary War, Cornplanter captured his father and wanted him to remain among the tribe, but Abeel refused. Cornplanter also had a half-brother named Handsome Lake.
During the Revolutionary War, Cornplanter argued for neutrality, believing that the white men’s war should be fought by the white men and that the Iroquois should remain neutral. However, both sides tried to persuade the tribe to take their part, tempting them with money and goods. The tribe voted to fight on behalf of the British and, despite his leaning toward neutrality, Cornplanter respected the majority’s decision and became one of two war chiefs. When the British subsequently lost, Cornplanter, with his formidable skills of diplomacy and oratory, understood the sense in having friendly relations with the newly minted U.S. Government, which the Iroquois referred to as the “13 Fires.” Cornplanter helped mediate between the Government and several different tribes as well as his own people. He took part in meetings with President Washington and also with Thomas Jefferson. Throughout instances of Indian resistance he managed to retain neutrality for the Iroquois. In 1790 he traveled to Philadelphia to appeal to Governor Thomas Mifflin on behalf of his people; he left with a promise that Iroquois land would be protected.
As a thanks for his help, Cornplanter was granted 1,500 acres of land in the western part of Pennsylvania. The deeds were handed over in 1796. He was also given a further 700 acres, the Cornplanter Grant, in Warren County.
In later life, Cornplanter became disillusioned with the ways of the Americans. He saw his people descend into a despair born of hopelessness compounded with alcohol abuse; many of them had also lost touch with their traditional religious ceremonies, adopting the Christian faith of the white men. He felt that this further undermined his people’s sense of self. Cornplanter turned his back on the ways of the white men, burning his military uniform, destroying his medals and awards, and breaking his sword, although he did retain his respect for the Quaker faith.
In 1836, Cornplanter died in Pennsylvania; he had asked that his grave remain unmarked, but some years after his death the spot was flooded when a reservoir was built there, and a monument was erected in his honor.
CORNSTALK
1720(?)–1777
A Shawnee leader, Cornstalk’s Native name was Hokoleskwa, which translates, roughly, as “stalk of corn.” Born near Pennsylvania, he moved to Ohio along with other members of his tribe, forced from the Shawnee’s traditional lands by the incursion of the white settlers. It is indeterminate as to whether or not he fought in the French and Indian War, but what is certain is that he lobbied for peace. Cornstalk did, however, fight in Lord Dunmore’s War to try to block the invasion of Virginian settlers into Shawnee land in Ohio. Despite the fact that the Indians were beaten on this occasion by the settlers, his skills as a warrior and commander attracted the attention and respect of the white people. His skills as an orator, too, did not go unnoticed.
During the Revolutionary War a position of neutrality was favored
