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Of the writers who deal with music from the point of view of the cultivated layman, Aristotle is undoubtedly the most instructive. The chapters in his Politics which treat of music in its relation to the state and to morality go much more deeply than Plato does into the grounds of the influence which musical forms exert upon temper and feeling. Moreover, Aristotle's scope is wider, not being confined to the education of the young; and his treatment is evidently a more faithful reflexion of the ordinary Greek notions and sentiment. He begins (Pol. viii. 5, p. 1340 a 38) by agreeing with Plato as to the great importance of the subject for practical politics. Musical forms, he holds, are not mere symbols (sêmeia), acting through association, but are an actual copy or reflex of the forms of moral temper (en de tois melesin autois esti mimêmata tôn êthôn); and this is the ground of the different moral influence exercised by different modes (harmoniai). By some of them, especially by the Mixo-lydian, we are moved to a plaintive and depressed temper (diatithesthai odyrtikôterôs kai synestêkotôs mallon); by others, such as those which are called the 'relaxed' (aneimenai), we are disposed to 'softness' of mind (malakôterôs tên dianoian). The Dorian, again, is the only one under whose influence men are in a middle and settled mood (mesôs kai kathestêkotôs malista): while the Phrygian makes them excited (enthousiastikous). In a later chapter (Pol. viii. 7, p. 1342 a 32), he returns to the subject of the Phrygian. Socrates, he thinks, ought not to have left it with the Dorian, especially since he condemned the flute (aulos), which has the same character among instruments as the Phrygian among modes, both being orgiastic and emotional. The Dorian, as all agree, is the most steadfast (stasimôtatê), and has most of the ethos of courage; and, as compared with other modes, it has the character which Aristotle himself regards as the universal criterion of excellence, viz. that of being the mean between opposite excesses. Aristotle, therefore, certainly understood Plato to have approved the Dorian and the Phrygian as representing the mean in respect of pitch, while other modes were either too high or too low. He goes on to defend the use of the 'relaxed' modes on the ground that they furnish a music that is still within the powers of those whose voice has failed from age, and who therefore are not able to sing the high-pitched modes (oion tois apeirêkosi dia chronon ou rhadion adein tas syntonous harmonias, alla tas aneimenas hê physis hypoballei tois têlikoutois). In this passage the meaning of the words syntonos and aneimenos is especially clear.
In the same discussion (c. 6), Aristotle refers to the distinction between music that is ethical, music suited to action, and music that inspires religious excitement (ta men êthika, ta de praktika, ta ho enthousiastika). The last of these kinds serves as a 'purification' (katharsis). The excitement is calmed by giving it vent; and the morbid condition of the ethos is met by music of high pitch and exceptional 'colour' (tôn harmoniôn parekbaseis kai tôn melôn ta syntona kai parakechrôsmena).
In a different connexion (Pol. iv. 3, p. 1290 a 20), dealing with the opinion that all forms of government are ultimately reducible to two, viz. oligarchy and democracy, Aristotle compares the view of some who held that there are properly only two musical modes, Dorian and Phrygian—the other scales being mere varieties of these two. Rather, he says, there is in each case a right form, or two right forms at most, from which the rest are declensions (parekbaseis)—on one side to 'high-pitched' and imperious oligarchies, on the other to 'relaxed' and 'soft' forms of popular government (oligarchikas men tas syntonôteras kai despotikônteras, tas d' aneimenas kai malakas dêmotikas). This is obviously the Platonic doctrine of two right keys, holding the mean between high and low.
§ 8. The Aristotelian Problems.
Some further notices of the harmoniai or modes are contained in the so-called Problems—a collection which is probably not the work of Aristotle himself, but can hardly be later than the Aristotelian age. What is said in it of the modes is clearly of the period before the reform of Aristoxenus. In one place (Probl. xix. 48) the question is asked why the Hypo-dorian and Hypo-phrygian are not used in the chorus of tragedy. One answer is that the Hypo-phrygian has the ethos of action (êthos echei praktikon), and that the Hypo-dorian is the expression of a lofty and unshaken character; both of these things being proper to the heroic personages on the stage, but not to the chorus, which represents the average spectator, and takes no part in the action. Hence the music suited to the chorus is that of emotion venting itself in passive complaint:—a description which fits the other modes, but least of all the exciting and orgiastic Hypo-phrygian. On the contrary (the writer adds) the passive attitude is especially expressed by the Mixo-lydian. The view here taken of the Hypo-dorian evidently agrees with that of Heraclides Ponticus (supra, p. 10).
The relation which Plato assumes between high pitch and the excitement of passion, and again between lowness of pitch and 'softness' or self-indulgence (malakia kai argia), is recognized in the Problems, xix. 49 epei de ho men barys phthongos malakos kai êremaios estin, ho de oxys kinêtikos, k.t.l.: 'since a deep note is soft and calm, and a high note is exciting, &c.'
§ 9. The Rhetoric.
The word tonos occurs several times in Aristotle with the sense of 'pitch,' but is not applied by him to the keys of music. The nearest approach to such a use may be found in a passage of the Rhetoric (iii. 1, p. 1403 b 27).
Speaking of the rise of acting (hypokrisis), which was originally the business of the poet himself, but had grown into a distinct art, capable of theoretical as well as practical treatment, he observes that a similar art might be formed for oratory. 'Such an art would lay down rules directing how to use the voice so as to suit each variety of feeling—when it should be loud, when low, when intermediate;—and how to use the keys, when the pitch of the voice should be high or low or middle (kai pôs tois tonois, oion oxeia kai bareia kai mesê, sc. phônê); and the rhythms, which to use for each case. For there are three things which men study, viz. quantity (i.e. loudness of sound), tune, and rhythm (tria gar esti peri hôn skopousi, tauta d' esti megethos, harmonia, rhythmos).' The passage is interesting as showing the value which Aristotle set upon pitch as an element of effect. And the use of harmonia in reference to the pitch of the voice, and as virtually equivalent to tonos, is especially worthy of note.
§ 10. Aristoxenus.
Our next source of information is the technical writer Aristoxenus, a contemporary and pupil of Aristotle. Of his many works on the subject of music three books only have survived, bearing the title harmonika otoicheia [2]. In the treatment adopted by Aristoxenus the chapter on keys follows the chapter on 'systems' (systêmata). By a systêma he means a scale consisting of a certain succession of intervals: in other words, a series of notes whose relative pitch is determined. Such a system may vary in absolute pitch, and the tonoi or keys are simply the different degrees of pitch at which a particular system is taken (tous tonous eph' ôn tithemena ta systêmata melôdeitai). When the system and the key are both given it is
