The first cervical vertebra is the atlas. The second vertebra is called the axis.
Inferior to the cervical vertebrae are twelve thoracic vertebrae. There is one rib connected to each thoracic vertebrae, making 12 pairs of ribs. Most of the rib pairs come together ventrally and join a flat bone called the sternum.
The first pairs or ribs are short. All seven pairs join the sternum directly and are sometimes called the «true ribs». Pairs 8, 9, 10 are «false ribs». The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are the «floating ribs».
Inferior to the thoracic vertebrae are five lumbar vertebrae. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest and the heaviest of the spinal column. Inferior to the lumbar vertebrae are five sacral vertebrae forming a strong bone in adults. The most inferior group of vertebrae are four small vertebrae forming together the соссуж.
The vertebral column is not made up of bone alone. It also has cartilages.
New words
skeleton – скелет
make up – составлять
weight – вес
trunk – туловище
vertebrae – позвоночник
thoracic cavity – грудная клетка
pelvic – тазовый
cervical – шейный
atlas – 1 шейный позвонок
sternum – грудина
mainly – главным образом
axis – ось
spinal column – позвоночник
inferior – нижний
rib – ребро
pair – пара
sacral – сакральный
соссу«– копчик
floating – плавающий
forming – формирующий
cartilage – хрящ
lumbar – поясничный
adult – взрослый
11. Muscles
Muscles are the active part of the motor apparatus; their contraction produces various movements.
The muscles may be divided from a physiological standpoint into two classes: the voluntary muscles, which are under the control of the will, and the involuntary muscles, which are not.
All muscular tissues are controlled by the nervous system.
When muscular tissue is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of small, elongated threadlike cells, which arc called muscle fibres, and which are bound into bundles by connective tissue.
There are three varieties of muscle fibres:
1) striated muscle fibres, which occur in voluntary muscles;
2) unstriated muscles which bring about movements in the internal organs;
3) cardiac or heart fibres, which are striated like (1), but are otherwise different.
Muscle consists of threads, or muscle fibers, supported by connective tissue, which act by fiber contraction. There are two types of muscles smooth and striated. Smooth, muscles are found in the walls of all the hollow organs and tubes of the body, such as blood vessels and intestines. These react slowly to stimuli from the autonomic nervous system. The striated, muscles of the body mostly attach to the bones and move the skeleton. Under the microscope their fibres have a cross – striped appearance. Striated muscle is capable of fast contractions. The heart wall is made up of special type of striated muscle fibres called cardiac muscle. The body is composed of about 600 skeletal muscles. In the adult about 35–40 % of the body weight is formed by the muscles. According to the basic part of the skeleton all the muscles are divided into the muscles of the trunk, head and extremities.
According to the form all the muscles are traditionally divided into three basic groups: long, short and wide muscles. Long muscles compose the free parts of the extremities. The wide muscles form the walls of the body cavities. Some short muscles, of which stapedus is the smallest muscle in the human body, form facial musculature.
Some muscles are called according to the structure of their fibres, for example radiated muscles; others according to their uses, for example extensors or according to their directions, for example, – oblique.
Great research work was carried out by many scientists to determine the functions of the muscles. Their work helped to establish that the muscles were the active agents of motion and contraction.
New words
muscles – мышцы active – активный
motor apparatus – двигательный аппарат
various – различный
movement – движение
elongated – удлиненный
threadlike – нитевидный
be bound – быть связанным
ability – возможность
capable – способность
scientist – ученый
basic – основной
12. Bones
Bone is the type of connective tissue that forms the body's supporting framework, the skeleton. Serve to protect the internal organs from injury. The bone marrow inside the bones is the body's major producer of both red and white blood cells.
The bones of women are generally lighter than those of men, while children's bones are more resilient than those of adults. Bones also respond to certain physical physiological changes: atrophy, or waste away.
Bones are generally classified in two ways. When classified on the basis of their shape, they fall into four categories: flat bones, such as the ribs; long bones, such as the thigh bone; short bones, such as the wrist bones; and irregular bones, such as the vertebrae. When classified on the basis of how they develop, bones are divided into two groups: en—dochondral bones and intramembraneous bones. En—dochondral bones, such as the long bones and the bones at the base of the skull, develop from cartilage tissue. Intra—membraneous bones, such as the flat bones of the roof of the skull, are not formed from cartilage but develop under or within a connective tissue membrane. Although en—dochondral
