have come of age over the past decade. Growing interest in volunteer tourism has led to clearer definitions and a greater differentiation from other forms of tourism and volunteering. In Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make a Difference, the following definition was offered:
… ‘volunteer tourism’ applies to those tourists who, for various reasons, volunteer in an organized way to undertake holidays that might involve the aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments, or research into aspects of society or environment.
(Wearing, 2001: 1)
This definition has provided a useful mechanism for clarifying and classifying a particular type of tourism. However, it has its limits. Ambiguities around what constitutes volunteerism and tourism challenge discrete definitional boundaries (Benson, 2011). Moreover, such a definition does not question the limits of volunteer tourism, and how it manifests in a wide range of contexts. Volunteer tourism (now also sometime termed ‘voluntourism’ and/or volunteer vacations), although still a fledgling concept and practice, has moved from the periphery closer to the centre of tourism research. In part, this is because the last 10 years have seen a steady increase in interest and practice with a corresponding rise in the scholarship of volunteer tourism.
This book considers new examples of volunteer tourist operations, including organizations such as Youth Challenge International (YCI, 2008, 2010), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Earthwatch, Conservation Volunteers Australia (CVA), British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (BTCV) and Mobility International USA (MIUSA), to name just a few. Lesser known examples include Antipodeans, Blue Ventures and Atalaya Peru.
These operations and the projects they undertake vary in location, size, participant characteristics and numbers, and organizational purpose. The common element in these operations, however, is that the participants can largely be viewed as volunteer tourists. That is, they are seeking a tourist experience that is mutually beneficial, that will contribute not only to their personal development, but also positively and directly to the social, natural and/or economic environments in which they participate. The philosophy of Explorations in Travel (EIT, 2008), a US-based volunteer work-placement firm, provides a good insight:
Travelling is a way to discover new things about ourselves and learn to see ourselves more clearly. Volunteering abroad is a way to spend time within another culture, to become part of new community, to experience life from a different perspective … Every community needs people willing to volunteer their time, energy and money to projects that will improve the living conditions for its inhabitants. No one needs to travel around the world to find a good and worthy cause to dedicate their efforts to. Volunteering should be something we do as a regular part of our lives, not just when we can take a month or two off, or when we have extra money to spend on travel. Your actions are your voice in the world, saying loudly and clearly what you think is important, what you believe to be right, what you support.
(EIT, 2008: X)
Furthermore, the position of the BTCV also emphasizes this point in an environmental conservation context:
Voluntary and community action can support site and species surveys, practical conservation projects, and longer term care and management. In the course of giving their time, energy, and experience to improving biodiversity, people can gain social and economic benefits including understanding, knowledge and skills. All of this can then further enhance their voluntary commitment.
(BTCV, 2000: 1)
Volunteer tourism can take place in locations varying from densely populated urban settings to rainforests and conservation areas. Popular locations include countries in Africa, Asia, Central and South America. Activities can vary across many areas, such as scientific research (wildlife, land and water), conservation projects, medical assistance, economic and social development (including agriculture, construction and education), and cultural restoration. Indeed, volunteers can find themselves anywhere, working on a multitude of projects, including assisting with mass eye surgery operations, tree planting, conducting a health campaign, teaching English, improving village sanitation, constructing a rainforest reserve, or assisting physicians and nurses with a mobile clinic. There is generally the opportunity for volunteers to take part in local activities and interact further with the community. Hence the volunteer tourist contribution is bilateral, in that the most important development that may occur in the volunteer tourist experience is that of a personal nature, that of a greater awareness of self:
When volunteers come back they feel empowered, knowing they have been able to make a difference … You come home feeling you don’t have limits. You feel a lot more confident in your ideas and beliefs and that you can contribute to society.
(Hill, 2001: 28)
While multidisciplinary in approach, and drawing heavily on broader tourism literature, a largely sociological perspective has been taken in this book. The Symbolic Internationist turn in sociology is of particular value when considering how individuals construct the meaning of their experience as volunteer tourists. As part of the volunteer tourism experience, interactions occur and the self is enlarged or expanded, challenged, renewed or reinforced (Wearing & Deane, 2003). As such, the experience becomes an ongoing process, which extends far beyond the actual tourist visit. Rojek (1993: 114) claims ‘travel, it was thought, led to the accumulation of experience and wisdom. One began with nothing, but through guidance, diligence and commonsense one gained knowledge and achieved self-realisation.’ Furthering this, volunteer tourism provides an opportunity for some individuals to engage in an altruistic attempt to explore ‘self’. It has been built around the belief that by living in and learning about other people and cultures, in an environment of mutual benefit and cooperation, one is able to engage in a transformation and the development of self.
Still, the broader tourism literature suggests that holidays do not usually have a tremendous impact on the way in which an individual sees him- or herself (Kottler, 1997: 103). It has been contended that holidays serve as an escape from the constraints and stresses of everyday life (Burkart & Medlik, 1974: 56; Cohen & Taylor, 1976; MacCannell, 1976; Rojek, 1995; Urry, 2002), or perhaps as a reward for hard work, but do not ultimately alter a person’s everyday life in terms of the way they think, feel or act. The traditional tourism literature suggests that while individuals may have enjoyed themselves, it is not long before that holiday is a memory in the day-to-day life to which they inevitably return. This book seeks to explore a different approach: taking volunteer tourism and investigating the more significant impacts it can have on the individual and on their lifestyle while also examining the same for the host community.
While much has been written in relation to the motivations of tourists when engaging in tourism,1 little research has been presented concerning the impact that leisure experiences such as volunteer tourism may have on the development of self through travel, and how one changes as a result (McGehee, 2002). The focus of the research on experience is contextualized within a framework stemming from the literature on tourism and leisure experiences. The experiential focus allows for the analysis of the volunteer tourism experience as a participative process involving direct interaction with the natural environment/local community within a specific social situation, contextualized by the differential elements of ecotourism, volunteering and serious leisure. This provides the initial basis for the exploration of alternative tourist experiences.
Selves in the Tourism Experience
To date, sociologies of tourism have developed two major themes concerning the self of the traveller. On the one hand, there has been an emphasis on tourism as a means of escape from the everyday, even if such escape is temporary. On the other, travel has been constructed
