and is uncertain tomorrow. With the assumption of scientific determinism, science studies continuing processes of events in the universe.
Scientific determinism is not the same as determinism, the philosophical idea of predestination or fatalism. The assumption of scientific determinism, that events in the universe are lawful, does not require such restrictive conditions. The only stipulation is that, all of many possible outcomes of an event are each in themselves lawful, even if at times unpredictable. Examples of lawful but unpredictable events are rolling dice, and the radioactive decay of atoms.
Dice tossing, tabulated in Table 1-1, represents the principle of scientific determinism, because all the possibilities are lawful, but not predestined. Thus, a score of seven has six possible ways to occur (five plus two, two plus five, three plus four, four plus three, six plus one, and one plus six) out of 36. The probability of a seven occurring is six in 36 or once in every six tosses. In a population of 36,000 tosses there will be 6000 sevens with very little error, and much less than a percent variation. However, if on any single toss, anyone wishes to know whether a seven will appear, only the estimate of probability (a one in six chance) can be invoked to predict. There is no certainty of predestination in individual tosses, only an estimate of probability. But, again, whatever score occurs will be a lawful event consistent with scientific determinism.
Table 1-1 Tabulation of Dice Tossing.
| Score | PossibleWays | Probability | Frequency(N = 36K) |
| 2 | 1 | 1/36 = .0278 | 1000 |
| 3 | 2 | 1/18 = .0556 | 2000 |
| 4 | 3 | 1/12 = .0833 | 3000 |
| 5 | 4 | 1/9 = .1111 | 4000 |
| 6 | 5 | 5/36 = .1389 | 5000 |
| 7 | 6 | 1/6 = .1666 | 6000 |
| 8 | 5 | 5/36 = .1389 | 5000 |
| 9 | 4 | 1/9 = .1111 | 4000 |
| 10 | 3 | 1/12 = .0833 | 3000 |
| 11 | 2 | 1/18 = .0556 | 2000 |
| 12 | 1 | 1/36 = .0278 | 1000 |
| Totals | 36 | 36/36 = 1.0000 | 36,000 |
Natural phenomena, like the decay of atoms, follow the same principles as dice tossing. In a population of atoms, like a population of dice tosses, decay will follow a predictable course. Whether a particular individual atom will decay at a given moment, however, is a matter of probability, just like a single dice toss. Einstein’s comment that, in atomic phenomena, “God does not play dice” (“Gott würfelt nicht”) was premature, but the atomic dice are used in a subtle manner, as Einstein also observed “God is subtle, but not malicious” (“Raffiniert ist der Herrgott, aber boshaft ist er nicht.”). Tracing of the understanding of the principles of evolution, later in this chapter, also reveals the role of scientific determinism.
The Science of Nature
Because the scientific method is shared by all sciences, science is essentially indivisible. Any separation among sciences is arbitrary and splits fields of study. The common demarcation between social sciences and biological sciences splits psychology. On the other hand, segregation of sciences along lines of life sciences and physical sciences divides biochemistry. Separation of sciences, however, is frequently necessary for convenience in dealing with the wide array of subjects under the scrutiny of science. This book, concerned with nature would, of course, deal particularly with those sciences studying life and not especially with those sciences whose subject is the physical world.
A basic difference between life and the physical world is the importance of the time dimension. In the physical universe events in time have relatively long duration compared to the short span of life. In view of the small importance of time in the physical world, physics has not investigated time to any great extent (Gold, 1967), until the recent spate of work over the last thirty years. Life, however, existing as it does in a rotating world, which makes the main energy source, the sun, periodic, has become time-locked. Even basic metabolic processes exhibit time cycles. Time brings rapid and important changes to life and can be considered life’s most salient dimension.
Physics considers work equivalent to force acting through distance (W = Fd), while force acting through time is relegated to the status of impulse (I = Ft). Such definitions are confusing to students of life science who realize that tremendous energy expenditure can result from holding a weight in fixed position for a time (impulse) as well as from lifting a weight through a distance (work). Actually, a living organism performs work by changing chemical potential energy into kinetic energy, just to maintain its existence from moment to moment. Indeed, the best index of energy expenditure during motor behavior is the integral of force acting through time (Trotter, 1956). Force exerted through time is also a major parameter of an organism’s response repertoire (Notterman and Mintz, 1965). Thus, for the purpose of life sciences, work must be reconsidered as effort acting through both distance and time, Effort = F[(d/t) + t]. The range of possible values of space (d) and time (t) are limited by the capacity of the organism. Within that range there are optimum values for d and t. To vary slightly from the optimum performance greatly increases the effort. Power (Fd/t) plus impulse (Ft) are the expression of effort for organisms. Beginning physics students have difficulty with the physical concept of work because of the intuitive understanding of their own effort. Technology has increased human power by decreasing the time of various activities. Using tools also changes the sense of how much effort is required for a task. The formulation of effort is realistic for the life sciences because both time and space become important to an organism that moves through its life.
A popular view of the difference between life sciences and physical sciences is that life sciences rely on statistics and physical sciences employ laws. The view stems from the idea that life sciences are newer, not as established, and understand less of their subject than the physical sciences. Implied in these statements is the concept that statistics is only a temporary treatment awaiting more thorough knowledge of the subject and the subsequent formulation of laws.
While the statements have some degree of accuracy, the stopgap view of statistics is incomplete. Physical sciences do use statistics. Returning to the example of the phenomena of light, laws are employed when light is treated as a ray. Thus, angle of incidence equals angle of reflection. Laws are evidenced when light is viewed as a wave. Hence, Huygen’s principle stating that every point on an advancing wave front is a secondary wave source. However, statistics must be be invoked when light is considered as a photon. Thus, events, like a particular photon being absorbed by colliding with a specific electron at just the proper moment, although lawful, are necessarily only probable. Probabilistic events can only be treated with statistical estimates of the
