b. Conversion to functional bracing within 1 to 2 weeks.
c. Immobilization with a brace should be employed for 6 to 12 weeks with confirmation of fracture healing radiographically.
d. Elbow mobilization should begin shortly after the brace has been fitted.
e. Humerus easily tolerates coronal and sagittal malalignment and 3 cm of shortening. Cosmetic deformities have been noted with 30 degrees of coronal angulation and 20 degrees of sagittal deformity.
f. Dr. Sarmiento’s series of 620 patients treated with functional bracing for humeral shaft fractures had the following results:
i. Six percent nonunion in open fractures and < 2% nonunion in closed fractures.
ii. Most patients healed with < 16 degrees of anterior and varus angulation and achieved good to excellent function.
G. Forearm
1. Isolated ulna fractures can be treated with immobilization if there is acceptable alignment (less than 50% translation and less than 15 degrees angulation).
a. Some authors recommend initial immobilization of both the wrist and elbow, while others feel the elbow can be left free.
b. Consider transition to ulna fracture bracing at 1 to 2 weeks post injury.
2. Most isolated radial shaft and both bone forearm fractures benefit from operative fixation in adults as it is difficult to maintain reduction with cast immobilization.
3. Nonoperative treatment in adults may lead to loss of pronation and supination.
4. Nonoperative treatment is the standard of care in children if alignment can be maintained in a cast (see Chapter 12, Principles of Pediatric Fracture Management, for specific guidelines).
H. Distal radius
1. Many displaced distal radius fractures can be treated with closed reduction and immobilization in a cast or splint.
2. Traction followed by reduction in flexion and ulnar deviation is usually required to reduce a Colles fracture (two-part extra-articular fracture; Chapter 28, Distal Radius and Galeazzi Fractures, ▶Fig. 28.4).
3. Immobilize in a splint with molding on the dorsum of the distal radius with slight flexion and ulnar deviation.
4. Assuming acceptable reduction is obtained, the injury should be closely monitored for maintenance of reduction.
5. Indications for surgical management of distal radius fractures are discussed in detail in Chapter 28, Distal Radius and Galeazzi Fractures.
6. Operative treatment, compared to nonoperative treatment, of displaced distal radius fractures in elderly patients has shown better radiographic results but no improvement in functional outcome.
I. Pelvis
1. The majority of minimally and nondisplaced pelvic fractures can be treated nonoperatively.
2. See Chapter 30, Pelvic Ring Injuries, for a detailed discussion of initial and definitive treatment.
J. Femoral shaft
1. Nonoperative treatment of femoral shaft fractures occurs in some third-world hospitals or in patients who are not amenable to operative treatment.
2. The results of Perkins’ traction (skeletal traction which allows movement of the knee) is reported to have a nonunion/malunion rate up to 10%, pin infection incidence of 30%, and an average hospital stay of 8 weeks.
3. Intramedullary nailing of femur fractures has been one of the great success stories of 20th century and is the standard of care even in remote hospitals with union rates > 98%.
K. Tibial shaft
1. These fractures were commonly treated nonsurgically through the 1970s until intramedullary nailing became more popular.
2. Techniques such as long leg casting with wedging to correct angular deformity and transition to patellar tendon bearing casts and cast bracing were the standard of care.
a. Patients were placed in above knee long leg casts and switched to functional braces after 3 to 5 weeks.
3. Sarmiento reported a 2.5% nonunion rate and < 10% malunion rate in a series of 780 tibial fractures (241 were open).
a. Union occurred at an average of 17 weeks for closed fractures and 22 weeks for open fractures.
4. Generally acceptable parameters for closed treatment include < 5 to 10 degrees varus or valgus angulation, < 15 degrees in the sagittal plane, < 15 degrees internal rotation, < 20 degrees external rotation, and < 2 cm of shortening.
L. Ankle fractures
1. Most unimalleolar nondisplaced ankle fractures are treated closed.
2. Unstable displaced ankle fractures are typically treated surgically.
3. Displaced ankle fractures can be treated nonoperatively if tibiotalar joint congruity is obtained following reduction.
4. Indications for closed treatment of ankle fractures include:
a. Isolated lateral malleolus fracture with < 4 mm medial clear space widening on external rotation or gravity stress views.
b. Isolated medial malleolus fractures where reduction can be maintained in cast.
c. Elderly low-demand patients or poorly controlled diabetics with high risk for surgical complications.
5. Displaced bimalleolar and trimalleolar ankle fractures should be promptly reduced even if surgical management is planned.
6. Typical reduction maneuver for a supination—external rotational injury with lateral talar displacement:
a. The Quigley maneuver classically describes suspension of the great toe with the patient supine. This facilitates reduction by adduction, internal rotation, and supination of the foot.
b. Treated with below knee casting for 4 weeks or longer depending on healing.
III. Casting Techniques
A. Short leg cast
1. Support metatarsal heads.
2. Flex the knee to relax the gastrocnemius muscle.
3. Position the ankle in neutral dorsiflexion.
4. Ensure freedom of the toes.
5. Build up heel for walking casts—fiberglass much preferred for durability.
B.
