It is also claimed that the goal was to prepare Chinese society for a change in relations with the United States.27 For many years the United States was identified in China as the enemy. In this context, ping-pong diplomacy had an internal dimension apart from the external one, which is typical for sports diplomacy, both directed at international rapprochement and shaping the international image of a state. The public aspect of the objectives of the exchange also suggests that it was an example of public diplomacy, even though it was also about facilitating an opportunity for traditional diplomats to get in touch.
A question might arise whether table tennis exchange was a proper means of fostering political rapprochement between the United States and China. According to some authors, the selection of table tennis was not coincidental, because Chinese wins were expected. On the other hand, in the following year, China was visited by American basketball players, and this time a win by Americans was anticipated. Such results would not be regarded as a loss of face.28 The choice of table tennis as a means of rapprochement for various reasons appears to have been correct, but most likely it was a matter of coincidence since it was during the table tennis championships that the initial contact was made.
Cricket Diplomacy between India and Pakistan
An interesting example of sports diplomacy directed at rapprochement between hostile states refers to relations between India and Pakistan. Since 1947 when both countries gained independence, they went to war four times.29 The tension is increased by the fact that both states possess nuclear weapons. However, despite strong antagonism, both societies also have certain common features, such as a passion for cricket.
Cricket is considered as the second to football most often practiced sport worldwide. The emotions it evokes in South Asia are sometimes compared to those during military conflicts.30 Not surprisingly, contacts in such a popular sport are attributed with strong political significance. They attract both societies, but on the other hand, they might arise unnecessary emotions concerning the positive diplomatic objectives.
The first attempts to use cricket in shaping India-Pakistan relations were held in 1952, despite tensions concerning the border in Kashmir. At the time Pakistani national team for the first time visited India to play a series of five test matches. The people of Delhi were reported to have welcomed Pakistani players very warmly.31 Similar reciprocal meetings were held in the years that followed, although they were interrupted at the times of increased political estrangement. A longer pause in cricket exchanges took place between 1961 and 1978.32 Worth mentioning, suspending sports contacts may be considered as a diplomatic weapon, in the context of negative sports diplomacy.
A particularly important chapter of cricket diplomacy was held in 1987. It was preceded by tensions connected with military “operation Brasstacks.” Pakistani president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq decided to employ sports contacts to improve relations. Using the opportunity that Indo-Pakistan Joint Management Committee responsible for organizing the cricket World Cup in India and Pakistan held a meeting, Zia sent a message through Pakistani delegates expressing his willingness to watch a cricket match between both countries in India. India’s prime minister Rajiv Gandhi was surprised but agreed for Zia’s visit. When two leaders met at the airport, Zia symbolically embraced Gandhi instead of a handshake.33 Zia said that “cricket for peace is my mission” and that he “wanted to watch good cricket and see how we could solve our problems.” It might be claimed that at the time of Zia’s visit, the crisis in bilateral relations was slowly fading, but his presence at the stadium is believed to have additionally calmed the tensions. During the visit a declaration of not attacking each other’s nuclear installations was made, officially confirmed in December 1988.34
Cricket diplomacy initiated by Zia is a very typical example of sports diplomacy. Sports contacts were used as an opportunity to arrange direct talks between political representatives of estranged countries. Because of the political situation, such a meeting would normally be challenging to organize. Owing to the theoretically nonpolitical character of the sport, political leaders could arrange a meeting without the risk of losing face. It should be underlined that the whole contact was initiated by one side—Pakistan—while India agreed to hold the talks.
Easing of the relations between India and Pakistan allowed sustaining cricket exchanges. In 1987 and 1989 India’s team played a series of matches in Pakistan. They were organized within an initiative “Cricket for Peace” declared by Zia, with the goal of creating an atmosphere of mutual trust.35 However, as a result of the deterioration of political relations, cricket exchanges were later limited. A few one-day matches were successfully organized in 1997, but soon the relations got worse again after both countries conducted nuclear tests. In 1999 cricket exchanges were resumed, and despite certain doubts, a series of exhibition matches was organized in January and February in India,36 during which Pakistani players received a standing ovation from Indian supporters,37 which demonstrates the true potential of sport in overcoming hostility between nations. Unfortunately, new political tensions appeared soon after an Indian aircraft was hijacked by Islamic radicals from Pakistan, jeopardizing successes of cricket diplomacy of 1999.38
Relations between India and Pakistan kept deteriorating, and in 2002 another crisis in Kashmir almost led to war. In 2004 both governments decided to organize bilateral series of cricket matches to calm the tension and to test the possibilities of normalization, the opening of the border and resuming direct security negotiations.39 At the time bilateral relations were slowly improving, so there were concerns that any incident during the exchange might jeopardize this progress. On the other hand, canceling the series could have led to even worse results. The “Friendship Series”40 was eventually organized and the Indian cricket team toured Pakistan in March and April 2004. Before departure, Indian players were told by the prime minister to care not only about the sports result but also about the reception by local fans. Interestingly, the first match in Karachi on March 13 was won by India by a very narrow margin 3:2 (349 to 344), while the other three matches also were very even.41 Such results were claimed as the best possible concerning the diplomatic objectives. The most important thing was to affect public opinion concerning mutual rapprochement, not to win in the exchange.
The 2004 India-Pakistan cricket diplomacy is believed to have helped to improve relations between both countries.42 Another exchange was scheduled for the following year. Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf announced through the media his willingness to visit India to watch a cricket match and hold political talks. India responded with an invitation. Musharraf and India’s prime minister Manmohan Singh during their meeting declared that the peace process was irreversible.43 The exchange was assessed as helpful in consolidating peace and allowed both leaders to hold informal talks that accelerated the process of normalization.44
The success of cricket exchanges in 2005 led to further initiatives. In January and February 2005 a tour of the Indian team to Pakistan was organized.45 However, in 2008 Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again after the terrorist attacks in Mumbai. Cricket once again proved to be useful in such a situation. In 2011 Pakistani prime minister Yousaf Raza Gilani accepted an invitation from his Indian counterpart Singh to watch cricket World Cup semifinal in Molahi between India and Pakistan together. The initiative was commented as an attempt to create a better political climate between both countries, which contributed to the initiation of talks between ministries of foreign affairs in 2011 and the gradual normalization of relations.46 Once again, cricket exchanges helped to ease tensions. Interestingly, it was the first time when the Indian side came forward with such a proposal. Another new thing is that sports diplomacy stemmed from international cricket competition rather than from arranged exhibition matches.
India and Pakistan keep employing cricket as a tool of diplomacy. In 2013 cricket exchanges were resumed, and a series of three matches was organized in India.47 In turn, the opening of the cricket World Cup in 2015 allowed political leaders
