remember the points they would like to make first, second, or third, for example. Prewriting activities produce a concrete written plan for writing a paper (Harris & Graham, 1996).
Teachers may design graphic organizers to help students remember what they want to write and the order in which it should be written. The student completes the organizer before beginning to write. The process helps the student to retrieve and list points to be included in order before starting to write. The teacher can provide chapter and page numbers to help with the sequencing. The next step is to check to make certain that the evidence points are in the correct order. Some students with EF issues also benefit from an organizer that includes important vocabulary words. The student then uses the graphic organizer to guide his or her writing. Story maps, graphic organizers, concept maps, sequence templates, and the like are typically used with students at the elementary level. However, they can be useful for all students. Figure 2.9 is an example of a prewriting graphic organizer for an individual student at the secondary level.
The student can keep a photo of his or her completed graphic organizer to refer to as needed.
FIGURE 2.7 Prewriting Graphic Organizer
It is helpful to model prewriting and allow the student to practice it until it becomes part of his or her regular writing process. While modeling the process, point out that using metacognition during prewriting makes the writing process faster and more efficient. Not only does this step help the student remember the purpose and content of what to write, it also involves talking through what the student is thinking. This use of metacognition helps the student plan with a goal in mind, connect new information with prior experiences, problem solve, and reflect on his or her success in completing a task. Venn diagrams are a good prewriting tool to help students brainstorm and remember their ideas. The use of software programs such as Kidspiration and Inspiration are useful in teaching the prewriting process. See Chapter 6 for more details about prewriting.
Teacher Testimonial from: Elisabeth Halici
Grade: Elementary and Middle School
Executive Function Addressed: Working Memory
Strategy Name: Desktop Photo Strategy
Strategy Designed for: Whole Class or Individual
Elisabeth Halici
Each student has a picture on his or her desk of how the desk should look when class ends. Other uses of photos include pictures of visuals that are no longer needed by the class as a whole, pictures of the homework assignment from the board, or pictures of steps or algorithms needed to complete tasks.
IMAGE 2.2 Sample Concrete External Storage System
Task Analysis
Task Analysis, in this situation, is the process of analyzing and implementing the steps needed to successfully complete a goal. When analyzing a task, it is important to consider the student’s developmental and working memory levels.
For example, your students may find a task analysis for completing the morning routine helpful. A classroom routine for a middle schooler broken into individual tasks may include
entering the classroom and taking your assigned seat;
taking your class notebook or folder, pencil or pen, and text out of your backpack;
placing your backpack on the back of your chair;
reading the objectives for the class;
completing the class warm-up or drill in your notebook; and
sitting quietly and waiting for further instructions from your teacher.
Visual Schedules
Visual Schedules with reminders are another simple and effective visual aid.
FIGURE 2.8 Visual Schedule Example
Visual-Kinesthetic Strategies—What I See and Do
For students who learn best by seeing and doing, Meltzer (2010) includes the Human Number Line Strategy. In this strategy, students walk forward for addition and backward for subtraction. It can be as simple as 2 + 2 or as complex as reversing because of parentheses in a problem such as 2 + (-2).
Visual and Auditory Memory Strategy
Concentration Games
The use of concentration games gives students an opportunity to strengthen their working memory. Games can be constructed around any information students need to remember. In addition to traditional memory match card games, many concentration games are available as apps, including Memory Matches and Find the Pair Memory Matching Cards.
Visual Sequential Memory Strategy
Chunking
The process of chunking information during instructional delivery helps the student to connect to the material. When learning a long list of sequential pictured items, it is helpful to chunk the list into sections appropriate for the student. For example, you may want to start with three pictures at a time and progress to as many as seven at a time. The iMimic App is a good source of technology to reinforce visual sequential memory.
Auditory Sequential Memory Strategy
Like in visual sequential chunking the process of chunking information during instructional delivery helps the student to connect to the material. When learning a long list of spoken items, it is best to initially state three items to the student, gradually increasing the amount of stated items to seven. The Simon App
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