Data
Data were collected over an eight-week period for classroom assessments in reading comprehension and math problem solving assessments with two-step word problems. Data were also collected to measure the frequency that student prompting was required to determine if improvements in student independence were made. Students using the strategy showed an improvement of 48 percent on math assessments and 42 percent on reading assessments. (Student performance in math was significantly lower at baseline than in reading.) Students showed a significantly greater decline in the frequency of prompting in a small group setting outside of the general education classroom—a 60 percent decline—than inside the general education classroom—a 34 percent decline. However, it should be noted that data measuring student independence with the checklist in the classroom were gathered for the first two weeks of generalization, whereas data for independence in the self-contained setting were gathered for six weeks.
Student Feedback
P., fifth-grade student with Other Hearing Impairment (OHI) due to ADHD:
“The bookmark helped me a lot figure out how to do what I need to do. I don’t need to sit all confused anymore.”
B., fourth-grade student with Specific Learning Disability (SLD):
“At first I didn’t like it because it was a lot of steps to do and think, but then I started liking it because it actually made work easier. I didn’t realize it made it easier until I lost my bookmark though. Stuff was harder all over again, but I asked for a new one.”
L., fourth-grade student with SLD:
“It looked like a lot but then it helped me make things make sense. I knew what to do.”
FIGURE 1.6 Cognitive/Metacognitive Strategy Instruction Poster
SOURCE: Sharpe, Strosnider, & Toso, 2017.
FIGURE 1.7 Cognitive/Metacognitive Strategy Instruction Bookmark (Front and Back)
SOURCE: Toso, 2015.
Supportive Technologies
Since technology is useful in leveling the field for accessibility to learning and helps to meet the diverse learning needs of all students, each chapter of this book will address specific websites, software, and apps that support executive function skill training. We use technology as a tool to complement the strategies we teach. We choose technology tools that address multiple age groups. Please note that technology resources are developed daily. CommonsenseMedia.org is an excellent resource for teachers seeking information regarding current technology for their students. Below is an example of the supportive technology table provided in each chapter.
TABLE 1.4
The 7-Step Model for Executive Function Skills Training
Based on observations during our decades of experience, we the authors have developed a 7-Step Model for executive function skills training incorporating UDL and metacognition. This model is potentially evidenced-based, as supported by our observations, data collection and informal assessments regarding the student’s ability to learn and correctly use the strategies. By addressing both learning strengths and difficulties, this approach is effective for all types of learners. The seven steps, which are explored in detail in the remainder of this chapter, are shown in figure 1.8, 7-Step Model. The completion of the steps within the model is a flexible process in that some steps may have already been accomplished when you start the process. For example, you may already know that a student has been identified with an executive function deficit in a specific area. This knowledge would eliminate step 1 of the model process. Each step of the model should be regarded as a tool to prompt your thinking in terms of how to help the student learn. This may require an open mind to different approaches to instructional planning. In addition, a Modified 7-Step Model is included later in this chapter to address the needs of teachers who wish to implement the model with an entire class.
Subsequent chapters of this book walk the reader through the 7-Step process, using examples of students of different ages who exhibit typical executive function skill deficits. The components of each step are modeled for the teacher.
FIGURE 1.8 The 7-Step Model and 7-Step Model Modified
Examining Each of the 7-Steps in Detail for an Individual or Small Group
Step 1
Determine the student’s EF deficits and note them in the Executive Function (EF) Planning Chart.
Assessment
This is completed through reviewing the student’s records as well as through observations of the student and interviews with the student, as well as his or her family members and other and previous teachers. Formal and informal assessments may also be used to help determine EF deficits. While there is no federal mandate to assess executive functioning and no preferred battery of tests to determine that a student has deficits in certain executive function skills, formal assessments used in the diagnosis of a disability under IDEA often include relevant information and are offered at no cost to the parents (Tucker, 2015). Other formal assessments such as the BRIEF (Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2013), or parts of formal assessments, provide additional information that is helpful in determining areas of weakness and the best way of meeting the student’s needs. Neuropsychologists, school psychologists, or speech pathologists usually administer formal assessments. Informal assessment may include questionnaires, surveys, and observations. When questionnaires are used, it is important to get the opinions of the student, the parents, and the teacher(s). Structured interviews, such as the instrument Executive Functioning Semi-Structured Interview developed by Kaufman (2010), can be used to gain information regarding a student’s executive functioning strengths and needs through interviews with the student, teachers, and parents. Included in Appendix 1.15 is a Sample Student Self-Assesment Tool you can use or revise to meet the needs of your particular situation. It provides actions for students to self-rate themselves and a column for teacher validation and comments.
Having reviewed the above information, consider how the student’s strengths and difficulties are exhibited in terms of academic, communicative, and social/emotional behaviors. Determine whether the student has deficits in any of the following executive function areas:
Working Memory
Prioritizing, Organizing, Sequencing, Managing Time, and Planning
Attending, Focusing, and Initiating
Controlling Social/Emotional Behaviors, Inhibiting Behaviors
Communicating, Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting
Determine from all of the information collected
