other’s chapters, we did not have a goal of forging a unified position throughout.
Our book is composed of distinct parts that present the results of our work on our project over the past two years. Part I provides a narrative of the history of NSF’s involvement in the world of digital computing, especially as it relates to the funding activities of CISE and its predecessors. (Table P.1 gives a timeline of some of the key events in this narrative, to assist in comprehending some of the milestones passed.) Part II goes into more depth on a selected set of important topics. Part III provides our conclusions, and the appendixes present NSF organizational charts over time, a list of the interviews we conducted, a non-exhaustive set of short biographies, a description of the archive we prepared, and a list of abbreviations and acronyms,
Before providing a guide to using this book, we provide very short characterizations of each of the 13 chapters.
Chapter 1 covers computing activities related to science information, facilities, education, and basic research in the period from 1950 to 1974. The most active early support entailed providing science information and support for research in information retrieval, databases, and computational linguistics. Computing facilities and education were supported more heavily than computing research, but did enable the creation of some of the earliest computer science academic departments. Creation of the Office of Computing Activities (OCA) in 1967 was a landmark development because it strengthened support for computing research and provided organizational status; that resulted in stronger ties to other NSF programs and the NSF imprimatur to fledgling academic computer science departments.
Table P.1Select events in the history of NSF and computing, 1950–2008
| Year | Event |
| 1950 | NSF enabling act signed in November; operations begin in 1951 |
| 1951 | Office of Science Information (OSI) created |
| 1953 | Assistance given to buy computer for research |
| 1954 | First training/education grant. |
| 1955 | von Neumann panel recommends research on design of computers; National Science Board approves facilities program |
| 1957 | First grants for computing research |
| 1958 | Office of Science Information Services (OSIS) created; NSF expands computing facilities, research and education investments |
| 1963 | Early Training grants led to the first CS curricula and departments |
| 1966 | Rosser Report |
| 1967 | Pierce Report; Office of Computing Activities (OCA) created |
| 1974 | Division of Computer Research (DCR) created, then recreated in 1984 |
| 1978 | Theorynet and Debate on Public Cryptography |
| 1980 | CER (experimental research) and CSNET (networking) programs begin |
| 1984 | Supercomputer Centers created and NSFNET begins |
| 1986 | CISE created |
| 1995 | NSFNET converted to Internet |
| 1999 | ITR program started |
| 2003 | Major reorganization of CISE |
| 2004 | GENI Program started |
| 2005 | Broadening Participation Program started |
| 2005 | Office of Cyberinfrastructure (OCI) created in O/D |
| 2006 | CCC created |
| 2008 | Expeditions in Computing, Cyber-Enabled Discovery programs begin |
| 2013 | OCI moved from O/D to CISE as Division of Advanced Cyberinfrastructure (ACI) |
| 2016 | ACI made into an office (OAC) within CISE to provide better connection with rest of NSF |
Chapter 2 covers the years from 1974 until the founding of CISE in 1986. In addition to organizational changes and further strengthening of computing programs, there was support for efforts to professionalize and define computer science. A series of reports (e.g., Feldman, Snowbird, Hopcroft-Kennedy, Lax, Bardon-Curtis) shaped NSF’s computing efforts. Among the results were cryptologic research, the Coordinated Experimental Research (CER) program, and the CSNET and NSFET networking initiatives; these are afforded expanded discussion. This growing importance of computer science and of computing, coupled with internal efforts by several NSF staff, led to the founding of CISE.
Chapter 3 covers the years from the founding of CISE in 1986 through 1998. There was a succession of short-term ADs: Gordon Bell, William Wulf, Nico Habermann, Paul Young, and Juris Hartmanis (all served approximately two years each). In spite of some internal pushback, the new Directorate quickly established its structure and importance within both NSF and the federal government. During the 1990s the first easily usable browser (Mosaic), conversion of NSFNET into the Internet, and the emergence of Google were all enabled in some way by CISE support.11 By 1999 CISE started to receive greater funding from Congress, increased respect within NSF, and sustained leadership from its scientific community.
Chapter 4 covers 1999–2006 when Ruzena Bajcsy and Peter Freeman served as CISE ADs. Major initiatives increased support for cyberinfrastructure, greatly expanded the field with the Information Technology Research (ITR) program, reorganized CISE, started new funding programs in networking research (GENI—the Global Environment for Network Innovations), cybersecurity research (a centers program), and the Broadening Participation in Computing (BPC) program. Direct actions by CISE made significant management changes in the supercomputer centers and strengthened the cyberinfrastructure and basic research programs. Initial plans were laid for later initiatives including the Expeditions in Computing program and Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation (CDI).
Chapter 5 covers 2007–2016. Three individuals served as AD/CISE: Jeannette Wing, Farnam Jahanian, and James Kurose. Budgets were tweaked to ensure that basic computer science research was protected and that CISE received fewer but better proposals. A major one-time appropriation was received and successfully managed as part of President Obama’s stimulus package. Several major programs, such as GENI, Expeditions in Computing, and Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation were furthered during this time. The Computing Community Consortium was continued and there was increased partnering with other directorates
