is or what it does. We need to pay closer attention because there is more going on than meets the eye. For example, when readers buy Situation Sthlm with a credit card they are not using existing Swedish kronor. Instead they will be transmitting new kronor generated by the credit-card company’s computer. Buyer and seller might be satisfied with the transaction, but they have also unwittingly boosted the number of kronor in circulation, and thus the Swedish money supply.
The purpose of this book is to show why this matters, and why money should be created and controlled only by governments.
1 What is money?
Money has flowed through human civilization for millennia, lubricating trade and other forms of exchange and taking on many forms – from wooden tally sticks to evanescent bits and bytes whizzing through the electronic ether. And as it moves from person to person, money talks – offering a running commentary on the balance of power between individuals, corporations and the state.
FOR SOMETHING THAT plays such a central part in everyday life, money is remarkably slippery and amorphous. Is it an object, or just a piece of information? You can consider as money the coins in your pocket or the notes in your wallet. But if your total worldly wealth is on your person right now you are unlikely to feel very secure. You hope that the cash you have in your bank account also counts as money, though it may never have taken a physical form – just an electronic entry in some remote computer. Even some of the world’s poorest communities are now receiving payments and settling accounts using mobile phones.
Money is what money does. Suppose you are in a taxi, discover that you have no cash and offer to pay with your watch. Is your watch money? If so, then absolutely anything could be money – which would make this a very fat book. Since the book is mercifully slim, there must be an escape route, via a snappy definition. One of the standard assertions is: ‘Money is anything that is widely used for making payments and accounting for debts and credits.’ Or, in more specific terms, money is anything that governments will accept for paying taxes.
Credit and barter
Money has often been thought of as just like any other commodity – part of a sophisticated form of barter. In fact money has its origins in credit as people tried to keep track of mutual obligations.1 One the earliest types of record was the ‘tally stick’. This would be a stick generally of hazel-wood on which details of the obligation were recorded, with notches and in writing. The stick was then split. The debtor kept one half; the creditor kept the other. Since each stick was unique the record would be quite specific. Its value depended, however, not on the price of hazel-wood but on the relationship between debtor and creditor.2
In principle the creditor could pass on the tally stick to someone else and indeed this often happened. This would make the tally stick a limited form of money. However, another option might be to use something else as an intermediate token or commodity – a more general ‘medium of exchange’. For this purpose you could use any readily transferable item but the best bet will be something in limited supply. Throughout the ages the most common tokens have been made of precious metals, and particularly silver and gold, which have the merit of being relatively scarce and portable while also being divisible into any size and weight.
Metals are durable, which is why even when many other elements of ancient cultures have disappeared, pieces of metallic money often remain as the most persistent vestiges of human activity. This might suggest that most transactions were carried out with cash, but many more took the form of credit, even if any records of transactions have long since vanished.
The earliest known usages of commodities as money tokens have been traced back to the 24th century BCE, in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which is now shared between Iraq, Syria and Turkey. Here people often used both silver and grain when exchanging goods. They could also use these for paying fines. Around 1000 BCE the king of Eshnunna in northern Mesopotamia, for example, declared that the fine for biting a man’s nose was around half a kilo of silver.3
Of course metals that are scarce in some places can be quite common in others. So if you lived in, or better yet owned, a place that had a gratifying supply of precious metals, you would literally be sitting on a goldmine. Lydia, for example, a territory in what is now Turkey, was well endowed with a natural gold-silver alloy called electrum. The last king of Lydia, from 560 BCE, was Croesus, who became fabulously wealthy; indeed he was ‘as rich as Croesus’.
Slotting in coins
Lydia is also thought to have been the first place to introduce coins – casting different weights of gold or silver so as to offer a system of regular oval pieces stamped on either face with different symbols according to the value. Instead of carrying around a pair of scales to tell how much metal you were exchanging you could instead accept the coins at ‘face value’.
Coins were also being produced in city states in ancient Greece. In Athens, for example, the government would pay citizens with coins for public-service activities, from fighting (as soldiers) to taking turns in juries. At first the face value of the coins supposedly matched the value of the metal they contained. But this would prove awkward for the smallest transactions which might require tiny scraps of silver, so the Greek cities also started to issue bronze coins, simply asserting their value, which was generally greater than their metal content. This represented an early example of what might be called ‘fiat’ money.4 Indeed, even the gold and silver coins were often irregular so they too relied on the fiat element. In fact, the use of gold and silver in some respects confuses the issue, implying that money is a commodity like any other when it is more a token that represents a recognized debt.
Soon Athens was making similar declarations about gold or silver coins, imposing a value higher than the actual metal content. It could do this by ensuring that only the state could produce the coins and making it clear that it would prosecute any forgers. This was also an early example of ‘seigniorage’ – the power over money creation that allows the government to manufacture money and use it to pay its own bills. Athens also saw the first signs of what we now call bankers. These started out as money changers, providing foreigners arriving in the city with coins they would need for daily transactions. But some money-changers also started to store coins, and to lend them out – at an interest rate of around 12 per cent a year.
To make the value readily identifiable, the coins were originally stamped with symbols such as plants or animals. In Athens, for example, one of the coins carried a stamp of the city’s sacred bird and became known as an ‘owl’. Eventually, however, the temptation for rulers to portray themselves on the coinage proved irresistible. The first monarch of this era to decide that coins would look better if adorned with his face was Alexander the Great who, by around the third century BCE, had conquered most of the known world and felt entitled to lord it over its money as well.
When in Rome
A couple of centuries later the Romans too took up the idea of making coins. They also introduced some of our modern terminology. One of the first places they used to manufacture coins was near a temple located on the Capitol, the citadel of Rome. The goddess occupying that temple was Juno Moneta, from whom are derived the words ‘money’ and the place where coins are made, the ‘mint’. Juno’s function as a goddess, appropriately enough for this risky item, was the ‘one who warns’.
In Rome the basic unit of currency was the bronze coin, the ‘as’, which was literally the value of an ass. The principal silver coin was named the denarius, which in 212 BCE could buy 10 asses. The Romans also gave an early indication of the power of money, or at least the power of money backed by brute force. As they crushed other regimes across Europe they grabbed most of the local precious metals. In 167 BCE,
