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varying degrees of detachment from their audiences—as in Buñuel’s Land without Bread (1932), which uses Mozart’s music and a travelogue-style narration to create a bottomless, Swiftian irony. Orson Welles is another obvious example, particularly in Citizen Kane (1941), a film that sets out to expose the manipulative bombast of a media tycoon and that treats every instance of public address, such as News on the March or Kane’s stem-winding campaign speech, as a hollow deception. The film’s claims to truth reside in the whispered “Rosebud” and the spectacular but ambiguous conclusion, which places the audience in the position of trespassers and tells them that a word can’t sum up a man’s life. Consider also The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), which superbly adapts the rhetorical conventions of Booth Tarkington’s old-fashioned, omniscient novel while at the same time evoking pathos in relatively unorthodox ways. What seems unusual here, as in Kane and several of Welles’s other films, is the way in which the audience is invited to sympathize with characters that are also treated critically. “I believe it is necessary to give all the characters their best arguments,” Welles once told a group of Spanish interviewers, “including those I disagree with. . . . I do not want to resemble the majority of Americans, who are demagogues and rhetoricians” (Cobos and Pruneda, 16).
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