early Vedic temple is likely to have been a thatched or wooden structure in which the altar was placed. The concept of sacrifice and worship of fire defined the altar, which was considered to be the microcosm of the sacred space.
The Vaastu Shastra
The power of sacrifice, its architectural expression and design of the sacred space, were strictly codified in the Vaastu Shastra, or the treatise on the science of building and orientation. It is based on the fundamental premise that on earth or soil is a living organism out of which other living creatures and organic forms emerge. Vaastu means "dwelling place," or indeed any planned building, and shastra means "science" or "knowledge." The Vaastu Shastra is a highly complex set of rules and regulations that fonnu-late a system of orientation, site planning, plans and proportions of buildings, the iconography to be used and the links between these physical elements and metaphysical rhythms, establishing the harmony between natural and supernatural forces. The actual plan of the building was based on the Vaastu Purusha Mandala. Purusha means "man," personified as the Creator, later known as Brahma, and mandala means "cosmic diagram."
Early rock-cut shrine at Gwalior Fort.
The Vaastu Purusha Mandala
The Vaastu Purusha Mandala shows the position of Brahma or the Creator within a square. According to Vedic cosmology, the circle represents the earth, chaos and irrational nature, while the square represents the heavens, order and rational thought. Each side of the square can be further divided into as many as 32 units. The subdivisions indicate the four cardinal directions, the position of the eight planets, the seasons of the year and the direction of the sun. The diagonals of the square divide the mandala into triangles, and within the basic square more circles can be inscribed. The center of the mandala, which represents harmony and equilibrium, is indicated by the Purusha's navel, and each part of his body within the mandala represents a part of the building to be designed. Elaborate mathematical formulae govern the square, circle and triangle and their subdivisions, as well as their correlation and symbolism in depicting the universe.
Sculpture of the snake spirit (naga) often worshipped under the peepal (Ficus religiosa) tree.
The paramasayika mandala (above), with 9 x 9 units of squares, and (below) the manduka mandala, with 8 x 8 units of squares.
Sacred Buddhist Spaces
The philosophical questions posed in the Upanishads on the relationship between the individual and the Universe, made them the basis for several heterodox religions which deviated from the Vedic roots of Hinduism. These included Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, prince of Magadha, in the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century AD, Buddhism had become a major religion of India.
Detail from a gateway, now in the Mathura Museum.
Stone cutting was brought to India in the 3rd century BC, and Buddhist architecture was the first to use stone as a building material.
Buddhist religious architecture, which flourished under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka, reflects the concept of meditation and worship, integral to the religion's rituals of prayer. It can be classified into three main types, based on the three cornerstones of Buddhism: first, the Buddha, an object of veneration, architecturally expressed in the stupa; second, the Dharma or religion, based on worship, which found expression in chaitya halls or sanctuaries; and third, the Sangha or community of monks, whose monasteries were called vihara.
The Stupa
The word stupa derives from the Sanskrit stup meaning "to heap." The earliest surviving form of religious architecture in India, the stupa was a funerary mound of earth and rubble, first erected to enshrine the cremated remains of the Buddha himself. Later, any holy relic associated with the religion, as well as the remains of some of the Buddha's disciples, came to be buried under similar structures, which were finished with brick and acquired a more ornamental form with the addition of chhattris (umbrellas surmounting the top) and railings (vedika). In the course of time, innumerable stupas were built, some merely votive in character and small enough to be carried by Buddhist pilgrims. Emperor Ashoka himself is said to have built 84,000 stupas, of which the one at Sanchi (3rd century BC) is the best known. In its original form it gradually fell into disrepair and was only discovered in the early 19th century when major restoration work by the British resulted in its present condition. Other well-known stupas in India include those at Bharhut, Sarnath and Nagarjunakonda, culminating in the Great Stupa at Amravati, where only the base remains.
The Mahastupa or Great Stupa, built in the 1st century scat Sanchi in central India, is the largest among several stupas and temples of varying sizes. A century later, it was enlarged to nearly twice its size. It now stands 36 meters in diameter and 16.5 meters in height. Its four toranas, each 8.5 meters high, were originally made of wood. The stone replicas were added later. The pradak-shina patha is divided into two, with an outer patha at ground level, defined by a massive unadorned stone vedika, and a staircase or so-pana. This leads directly to the inner patha, raised on a drum, which encircles the anda (dome) of the stupa.
Thus, the stupa itself gradually became an object of veneration and worship. A solid structure, with no means to enter it, unlike other funerary monuments such as the pyramids of Egypt, the stupa has its own intricate and complex iconography and philosophy of form.
Elements of the Stupa
The hemispherical dome of the stupa, known as the anda, stands for the dome of heaven. The circular plan is symbolic of the wheel, as a regulator of cosmic time, as also a representation of the lotus. The central cosmic axis is emphasised by a finial, usually in the shape of a flat disk called a chhattri or umbrella. The chhattri is also an expression of honor to the Buddha, signifying protection and representing the Bodhi Tree. It is supported on a mast known as the yasti. Sometimes a series of chhattris, the whole known as the chattravali, defines the apex of the stupa. A square railing near the summit, called the harmika, defines the space taken up, according to the plan, by the holy relic buried within the stupa.
An integral part of the Buddhist ritual of worship is to walk clockwise around the stupa with the right shoulder turned toward it as a mark of reverence. This circumambulation is meant to be a re-enactment of the rotational movement of celestial bodies, and also indicative of time in its cosmic sense. The paved path around the base of the stupa where this takes place is called the pradakshina patha, and this is enclosed by a fence or balustrade called the vedika. Sometimes the stupa has more than one pradakshina patha. The upper pradakshina patha is reached by a stone staircase called the sopana. Elaborate gateways called torana mark the four cardinal points at the corners of the vedika. The stupa is built of earth with an outer covering made of non-perishable material such as brick or brick-like stone. The vedika, harmika and chhattri are made of stone. The earliest stupas relied on austere simplicity and massive size to inspire awe, while later examples are intricately carved.
Detail from the east torana of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. The torana traces its origins to early village gates. It was originally made of two vertical wooden posts, over which rested a horizontal wooden cross member or lintel. Each of Sanchi's toranas has three lintels, slightly arched and carved with
