and on its manner of handling the evidence in question, in the second.
PART I
Chapter 1
The Problem of the Young Socrates
Socrates’ “Pre-Socratic” Past
For a long time now, scholars have been preoccupied with the question of Plato’s intellectual development. The well-known fact that the question cannot be answered with certainty, in large part because we lack unambiguous evidence for it from within the Platonic writings themselves or even from ancient sources more generally, has not discouraged scholars from forming, by turns, consensuses and factions in regard to it. Their willingness to pronounce with such confidence on an essentially open and controversial question is surely a testament to the state of the discipline. Despite or because of this, we are reminded of A. E. Taylor’s caution that “a thing is none the more certain because it has been pronounced allgemein bekannt by a chorus of Herren Professoren.”1 To be sure, Plato himself, whose testimony in this matter should count for something, does not give a single clear indication that his own thought ever developed or changed after he began writing. What he does, on the other hand, is devote a significant portion of his writings to the question of (his)2 Socrates’ intellectual development. Socrates’ intellectual development is immediately accessible to every reader through unambiguous evidence found within the dialogues themselves; Plato’s, or what is alleged to be Plato’s, is not. As opposed to the latter, which is necessarily a matter of ingenious conjecture, the former can be recognized and charted by proceeding in the way that Plato, as a writer, must have wanted us to proceed: by closely reading the dialogues he wrote. As it seems, then, in their preoccupation with the question of Plato’s, but not Socrates’, intellectual development, orthodox scholars have turned away without explanation from a question Plato makes much of, toward a question which, in addition to rendering unrecognizable the question he makes much of, his dialogues give no explicit permission or incentive to ask.3 That Plato considered the intellectual development of a thinker of the highest order to be a serious question cannot, therefore, be doubted for a moment. But it is not his own development that Plato’s dialogues explicitly draw our attention to and, by doing so, call upon us to reflect on; it is, rather, to the development of a Socrates become “beautiful and young” (Second Letter 314c2–4).
At his trial, in response to the official charges brought against him by his accusers—approximately, that he does not believe in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonic things, and that he corrupts the young (Apology 24b8–c2; cf. D.L. 2.40)—Socrates brings up slanders or rumors about himself that originated long ago to the effect that he investigates nature and practices rhetoric (18b4–c4, 19b4–c2, 23d2–7). To the official charges brought against him by his accusers he therefore adds these old, unofficial charges or rumors, which he traces back to Aristophanes’ Clouds (18d1–2, 19c3). Socrates thus brings it about at his trial that he is accused not only of what he was in fact accused of but also, among other things, of being a natural scientist. And he then goes on to defend himself, less than satisfactorily, against this rumor-charge. He does not, he claims, possess such a science at present (19c5–6, c9–d1). As for his past, a time when he did perhaps claim as much for himself, he merely asks whether the members of the jury have “ever” heard him at any time conversing about natural science, either much or little (19d4–6). This does not settle the matter; Socrates does not always speak in public (cf. 17c10, 33b7),4 and many of the members of the jury were children at the time in question (18b5, c7). On closer inspection, the very argument Socrates uses to challenge the rumor that he is or at least at some point was a natural scientist leaves open and even points to some room in his past when he might have been one. Besides this, Socrates makes it clear that he maintains even now, in his maturity, a certain admiration for natural science (19c6–9, e1–2), an admiration that is qualified, it seems, only by doubts as to its possibility (19c5–6, c9–d1).5 The doubts that qualify his admiration are no less telling than the admiration itself. For if Socrates has come to the conclusion that no human being can truly possess natural science (compare 19c5–d1 with 23a5–b4),6 and if this conclusion of his is a reasonable or nondogmatic one, must he not have engaged in some way in natural science? And we know for a fact that he did engage in it, and not merely “in some way,” but as a natural scientist himself. For when he is beyond the reach of the Athenians’ indignation, or already in the grip of it, on the day of his execution, Socrates gives an intellectual autobiography in which he openly admits that, contrary to the impression he gave at his trial, he was indeed, as Aristophanes had alleged to begin with, a natural scientist at least in his youth (Phaedo 96a6–100a8).7
Eventually, to be sure, Socrates ceased to be one. Turning away from the natural science of his philosophic predecessors, the pre-Socratics, Socrates turned to the examination, in which we see him, in his maturity, almost constantly engaged, of his own and others’ moral-political opinions. This revolution or turn in Socrates’ thought, which Plato unmistakably draws our attention to, has been rendered so unrecognizable by the preoccupation of orthodox scholars with the changes they somehow detect in Plato’s thought that, until rather recently, it did not even have a proper name of its own. And yet if we step back and take a larger view of the matter we see at once that what has come to be called the Socratic turn is not a new discovery at all; it is merely a rediscovery or a return to an older thing that is “allgemein bekannt” by a chorus of great thinkers, a chorus led by Plato himself. For, according to the traditional view, Socrates turned away from natural science, the study of his philosophic predecessors, in order to investigate the human or political things.8
Why Plato, to say nothing of Socrates himself, was so reluctant to admit or so keen to conceal Socrates’ “pre-Socratic” past and subsequent intellectual development will become clear as we proceed—provisionally, it would seem to have something to do with the fact that natural scientists were or were widely believed to be guilty of atheism, a capital crime (Apology 18b4–c4, 23d2–7, 26d1–9).9 But that, if not why, Plato treats the matter delicately is evident enough from a brief survey of its place in the corpus. Of the thirty-five dialogues that have been handed down to us as Platonic, only about three are narrated or reported by someone other than Socrates.10 And this device does not seem to be “unnecessary elaboration.”11 For these three dialogues, the Phaedo, the Symposium, and the Parmenides, are also the only ones in which we are permitted to see something of the young Socrates.12 And, as Laurence Lampert says, “[this] cannot be an accident.”13 In other words, in the dialogues where we have unequivocal evidence that the impression given by Socrates at his trial, that is, that the rumors about his “pre-Socratic” past were false, was a misleading one, Plato beautifully ensures at the same time, by confining that evidence to the only three dialogues wholly narrated by someone other than Socrates, that it, too, has the character of a rumor.14 As for which to trust, the rumors (including the Phaedo, the Symposium, and the Parmenides) or Socrates’ repudiation of the rumors (in the Apology), it is not hard to decide. Socrates’ repudiation, if we can even call it that, was strangely open-ended and even suggestive of a certain way the rumors might hold weight,15 whereas the rumors are conveyed or spread, as it were, by Plato himself. By conveying the truth about Socrates’ past and subsequent development in this way, through rumors, Plato makes an effort to conceal it. But this effort at concealment is so manifest that it also serves to reveal that truth and, at the same time, to reveal that he, together with Socrates, regarded that truth as a “touchy” one.16
As almost goes without saying, a complete account of Socrates’ turn or intellectual development would require an understanding of the relevant passages of the
