recently concluded, ‘is not just to do something, it is to be something.’10
To ‘be’ a squatter in Copenhagen or Amsterdam in April 1980 increasingly meant that one was also part of a wider social movement with all its achievements, goals and routines as well as its disappointments, disagreements and losses. For squatters, events such as the ‘Battle of Byggeren’ and the ‘Coronation Riots’ helped both to shape and to question the activist identities that they collectively shared. At the same time, these were events that did not work on the basis of any single vision of social change.11 To be in a movement was to be part of a complex process that challenged how a city could be imagined, lived and ordered differently. The squats set up by activists in Copenhagen and Amsterdam were more than spaces simply to live. They were sites of radical possibility and promise as well as sources of intense despair and disappointment. These were, finally, spaces whose histories have also helped us to understand how an urban social movement comes into being, develops, and later falters and declines.12
Social movements are usually seen as a form of ‘contentious politics’ characterised by sustained campaigns of ‘claim-making’ that, in turn, depend on an array of performances and practices. These are often claims to the rightful assertion of specific identities and the exercise of alternative social and political programmes.13 In the case of squatting, the story in Copenhagen and Amsterdam begins in the 1960s as young people across the United States and Europe started to move in and occupy classrooms, university departments, parks, factories and abandoned houses in order to create free spaces for alternative living but also, in many cases, to meet immediate needs around housing.14 The first occupation of a house in Copenhagen began on 24 February 1963, and was undertaken by a small radical anti-imperialist and socialist organisation known as Gruppe 61, who were active in the Danish campaign for nuclear disarmament.15
A couple of years later, a row of condemned seventeenth-century houses near Christianshavns Square were occupied by a group of young people. The squatters were successful in negotiating an agreement with the owner of the houses. They were allowed to occupy the houses, forming an autonomous community that numbered between 100 and 150 people. The community was known as the Republic of Sofiegården after the street on which it was located. The houses were finally cleared in 1969 and 1970 by the police. Some of the former residents became involved in the development of student housing, though many turned to the squatting of abandoned flats and buildings in Copenhagen.16
The city’s first squatter movement (Slumstoermerbevægelesen) was, in this way, born. Building on a combination of radical youth subcultures and DIY practices, the early wave of squatters in Copenhagen and elsewhere in Denmark were known as slumstormers (Slumstormere) and included students, activists, runaways and former drug offenders. They occupied abandoned houses and set up a series of utopian experiments and hippie-inspired communities (Hudegården, Jægergården, Stengården, Fredensgården, Tømrergården, etc).17 There were admittedly other squatters who, in this context, were active as early as 1966 and were based in the old working-class neighbourhood of Nørrebro studying as apprentices at the local bricklaying college. By the end of the decade they were widely seen as part of a citywide movement which was starting to find its feet.18
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