prophecy is identified as John the Baptizer (v. 4). John’s characteristic practice is introduced together with a brief description of the way he is dressed (vv. 4–6). The reference to his attire is meant to evoke memories of the prophets (2 Kings 1:8; Zech 13:4), and also to confirm that John was indeed a desert dweller, dovetailing with the prophecy of the voice in the wilderness.
John is called “Baptizer,” implying that this was his characteristic activity and for which people remembered him, which Josephus the Jewish historian confirms (Antiquities 18:117–19). Mark explains the theological rationale for John’s baptism as being connected with repentance and the forgiveness of sins. Such forgiveness is ratified through the outward act of baptism for the repentant. This fits in with the conceptual background of the fused text used in 1:2–3: a people truly prepared for the advent of God must have genuinely turned away (i.e., repented) from their disobedience, and embraced the gracious overtures of God (i.e., forgiveness). Moreover, against the first century Jewish background and the evidence provided by Josephus, John’s baptism may also be understood as a call to join a new community. His use of the wilderness as the place of ministry could therefore have arisen from both practical and theological concerns, as the wilderness was the place that could fit crowds and was also evocative of Israel’s exodus traditions.
Based on the data above, scholars have speculated whether John was ever connected with the Qumran community, since there is a convergence of text, location, and practice. However, given the paucity of the evidence and some crucial differences in relation to how baptism was administered (mainly frequency and agency), it is best to leave the question open.44
Verses 7–8 summarize John’s message. The forerunner theme is further developed, but with the focus now on the coming one. He may also be known as “the stronger one,” perhaps harking back to the Isaianic idea of God as “the mighty one” (28:2; 49:26), or possibly his messenger (Isa 11:2). Whatever the case, this person is so mighty that John is unworthy even to do one of the lowliest tasks in society: to stoop down and untie the thong of his sandals.
Significantly, this person will also baptize, but with the Spirit. The Holy Spirit is connected with the OT end-time expectation of a great moment of cleansing, resulting in the renewal of Israel. This promise is often described with liquid metaphors (Isa 32:15; 44:3; Ezek 11:19; 36:26–27; cf. Ezek 37:14; Joel 2:28–29; and 1QS 4:20–22). Such metaphors show spiritual cleansing is an important concern of God. The upshot of all this is that the Spirit’s work may be regarded as “baptism.” The similar saying in Matt 3:11||Luke 3:16 adds the word “fire.” This may gel with what Mark is portraying, as fire is also an image for cleansing, albeit with the added notion of judgment.
Mark skillfully follows his description of John’s message with the public appearance of Jesus. Astonishingly, Jesus comes to be baptized by John! This may reduce Jesus’ status to being ordinary, but Mark prevents this by describing the divine portent that takes place at Jesus’ baptism: the heavens are rent open, the Spirit descends in the form of a dove, and the divine voice speaks, affirming Jesus to be his beloved son. The significance of all this may be unpacked as follows.
First, Mark uses the Greek schizō to describe what took place in the heavens. This is a graphic word, which speaks of “tearing asunder.” Mark uses this word only once more, in the account of the tearing of the Temple veil (15:38). The other Gospel writers use anoigō, which means “open,” so as to avoid suggesting violence was done to heaven (Matt 3:16; Luke 3:21). Mark knows the meaning of anoigō and uses it in 7:35. All this implies schizō is being used intentionally and not because Mark lacks the vocabulary. The reason for this may be that Mark is thinking of Isaiah. This suggestion is supported by the fact that the book of Isaiah is important to the composition of Mark’s Gospel. In Isa 64:1 the prophet pleads before God to rend45 the heavens and come down, so as to restore the nation of Israel. For Mark, Jesus’ baptism signifies God has answered this prayer.46 The long-awaited intimate involvement and restorative action of God has come to pass.
Secondly, the descent of the Spirit takes on the bodily form of a dove. The Greek syntax47 can mean either “the Spirit, appearing as a dove, descends” (i.e., understanding it adjectivally)48 or “the Spirit descends as a dove does” (i.e., understanding it adverbially).49 Since Mark describes Jesus as seeing something tangible, many commentators take the simile as adjectival.50 The image of the Spirit as a dove is remarkable in two ways. First, the description is a stable datum across all four Gospels, when they contain many variations in the accounts of Jesus’ baptism. The second is that this is a unique description of the Spirit, not even paralleled in the account of Pentecost (Acts 2:1–4). Against all comers, this image of the Spirit has stuck in Christian art, but what does it mean?
Avian images have been used of the Spirit’s work of creation in the OT and Jewish literature (Gen 1:2; b. Hag. 15a; cf. 4Q521 1:6, where eschatological re-creation is in view). This theme does relate to the theological nuances of Mark’s description of the beginning of the gospel. However, why does Mark specify a dove? In the alleged parallels, a dove is never mentioned. Recently, it has been proposed that Mark is countering the Roman symbol of an eagle with the dove.51 There is much mileage in this but in our opinion it is still deficient, as it neglects the Jewish background. The dove often stands for Israel in Jewish literature (Hos 7.11; b. Ber 53b; b. Sab 49a), but never once is it used of the Spirit, with the possible exception of Targum to Canticles 2:12, where the voice of the turtledove is interpreted as the voice of the Spirit. Even so, it is clear that this parallel is not exact.
One possible solution is to regard the simile as a complex reference to the Spirit’s work of remaking Israel as having been devolved upon Jesus through his spiritual anointing and empowerment. After all, the Spirit is understood in the prophetic literature as the end-time gift that remakes Israel (see especially Ezek 36–37). All this will explain why Jesus in Mark represents Israel, and at the same time calls upon the nation to follow him in order to gain the kingdom. Admittedly this is speculative, but its consonance with many Markan themes makes it somewhat appealing. However, if a safe but bland answer is required, it is that the dove is a clean animal for sacrifice (Gen 15:9; Lev 1:14; 12:6; 15:14, 29).
Thirdly, the visual symbol is accompanied by the divine voice, which affirms Jesus as his beloved Son. If we discount the occurrence of this nomenclature in v. 1 because of textual uncertainty, this will then be the first time Jesus is called God’s Son. Scholars have debated the precise nature of the background to this verse: whether it is based on Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1 (for this to work, it must be conjectured that an original pais has been transmuted to huios); or Gen 22:2. If we are right to propose that sonship language should first and foremost be understood as election language when used of human beings, Ps 2:7 appears to be the more suitable background, being a verse from an enthronement psalm. But there is no need to think of a precise passage. What is more important is the story and role underlying such a title. Jesus as God’s beloved Son takes Israel’s role upon himself and rule as God’s vicegerent. This divine pronouncement gives the true perspective on Jesus’ identity for the reader.
As the Son of God, Jesus is then led by the Spirit to be tempted by Satan in the wilderness, which Mark describes rather briefly (vv. 12–13). Jesus may be regarded here as recapitulating the experience of Israel in the first exodus. Instead of forty years, he is tempted for forty days by Satan. The mention of Satan also serves to foreshadow the conflict to come in Jesus’ ministry. Interestingly, Jesus is described as being with the wild beasts (v. 13). The significance of this remark is unclear. It may refer either to the intensity of his temptation (i.e., threat of wild beasts), or the restoration of paradisiac conditions (i.e., wild beasts are tamed).
The Gospel in Galilee: The Mighty Acts of the Messiah (1:14—8:21)
Jesus’ Inaugural Message (1:14–15)
The programmatic significance of these verses must be highlighted. This is the first time that Jesus speaks in Mark’s Gospel, and with this Mark sums up Jesus’ message. If the preceding section formed the beginning of
