inquiries showed that the probability of ascertaining the meaning of a mask increased when the particular village was visited in which the specimen was collected. It was thus that I ascertained the meaning of the double mask figured in Woldt’s “Cpt. Jacobsen’s Reise an der Nordwestküste Amerikas” [Jacobsen 1884:129]. The outer face represents a deer; the inner, a human face. It refers to the tradition of the origin of the deer, which originally was a man, but was transformed, on account of his intention to kill the son of the deity, into its present shape. At last I found that the use of masks is closely connected with two institutions of these tribes—with their clans or gentes, and with their secret societies. The latter class of masks is confined to the Kwakiutl, Nutka, and Tsimshian, and I believe that they originated with the first-named people. The meaning of each mask is not known outside the gens or society to which it belongs. [Boas uses “gens” or “clan” here for what he later calls “numaym” (see Suttles 1991).]
This fact makes the study one of great difficulty. It is only by chance that a specimen belonging to one of our collections can be identified, as only in rare exceptions the place where it was purchased is clearly stated. The majority of specimens are purchased in Victoria, where they are collected by traders, who, of course, keep no record of their origin.
Besides this, the Indians are in the habit of trading masks, and copying certain models which strike their fancy from neighboring tribes. The meaning of these specimens is, of course, not known to the people who use it, and it is necessary to study first the source from which such carvings were derived. Thus the beautiful raven rattles of the Tsimshian are frequently imitated by the Kwakiutl, and the beautifully woven Chilcat blankets are used as far south as Comox. The carved headdresses of the Tsimshian, the Amhalai’t (used in dances), with their attachment of ermine skins, are even used by the natives of Victoria.
My inquiries cover the whole coast of British Columbia. In the extreme northern part of this region a peculiar kind of mask, which has been so well described by Krause [1885], is used as a helmet. I do not think that this custom extends very far south. Setting this aside, we may distinguish two kinds of masks: dancing masks and masks attached to housefronts and heraldic columns.
The latter are especially used by tribes of Kwakiutl lineage and by the Bilqula [Bella Coola]. All masks of this kind are clan masks, having reference to the crest of the house owner or post owner. They are generally made of cedarwood and from three to five feet high. One of the most beautiful specimens I have seen is a mask of the sun, forming the top of an heraldic column in Alert Bay, Vancouver Island. It belongs to the chief of the gens Sī’sentlē of the Nimkish tribe. The latter is the second in rank among the tribes of the Kwakiutl group, which form one of the subdivisions of the linguistic stock of the same name. The clan claims to be descended from the sun, who assumed the shape of a bird, and came down from heaven. He was transformed into a man, and settled in the territory of the Nimkish tribe. The name of this mask is Tlēselak• umtl (sun mask, from tlē’sela, sun; ik• umtl, mask). It has a bird’s face, and is surrounded by rays. Certain clans of the Bilqula have the mythical Masmasalā’niq, covered by an immense hat, on the tops of their house-fronts; but the use of masks for this purpose is, on the whole, not very extensive.
In order to understand their meaning and use, it is necessary to investigate very thoroughly the social organization of each tribe, and to study these masks in connection with the carvings represented on the posts and beams of the houses and with the paintings found on the housefronts. Thus the Kwakiutl proper are the highest in rank among the group to which the Nimkish belong. They are divided into four groups, which rank as follows: first, the Kue’tela; next the K˙’o’moyue or Kue’qa (the latter being their war name); then the Lo’kuilila; and finally the Walaskwakiutl. Each of these is divided into a number of clans, some of which, however, belong to two or three of these divisions. I shall mention here the divisions of the Kue’tela only, again arranged according to rank, and shall add their principal carvings.
1. The noblest clan is that of Matakila. Their chief wears a mask representing the gull, and they use also masks of animals representing the food of the gull. Their beams are not carved.
2. Kwokwa’k˙um. The posts supporting the beams of the house represent the grizzly bear, on top of which a crane is sitting. Their mask represents the crane.
3. Gye’qsem. Their post represents a crane standing on a man’s head.
4. La’alaqs’end’aio, who are the servants of the Kwokwa’k˙um. Their post is a killer (Delphinus orca) with a man’s body.
5. Si’sintlē (the same clan as that of the Nimkish). Their carving is the sun. Besides this, they use a dog’s mask, representing the dog which accompanied the sun when he was transformed into a man, the Tsonō’k˙oa, and several other carvings.
Each clan has a number of secondary carvings which have reference to the traditions relating the adventures of its ancestor.
As will be seen from this list, the emblems are also used as dancing masks. The use of masks for this purpose is spread all over the coast, being found among the Tlingit as well as among the tribes near Victoria; but among the latter very few types of masks are used, and it is the privilege of certain tribes and clans to wear them.… a number of these masks are illustrated. Before discussing their meaning, I have to say a few words as to the use of dancing masks.
We may distinguish two classes of dancing masks—those peculiar to the several clans and those belonging to secret societies.
The former are of two different kinds—masks used at the potlatch (the festival at which property is given away), and masks used for the mimical performances in winter, when dances representing the traditions of the clans are acted. Masks must not be used in summer and during daylight, except the potlatch masks. The latter are worn by chiefs in the dance opening this festival. After the guests have arrived, the chief who gives the festival opens the ceremonies by a long dance, in which he wears the principal mask of his gens. Thus the chief of the gens Sī’sintlē of the Kwakiutl uses the sun or the Tsonō’k˙oa.… Other masks of this kind represent the ancestor of the clan. Thus I found a mask representing Nomas (= the old one [fig. 1]), the brother of the raven, used by the chief of a clan of the Tlauitsis, of which he is the ancestor. A few gentes do not always use masks at such occasions, but have large posts representing the ancestor, which are hollowed out from behind. The mouth of such a post forms a speaking tube, through which the chief addresses the assembly, thus acting the part of his ancestor.
By far the most interesting masks are those used in the winter dances. The Kwakiutl and all the neighboring tribes which belong to the same ethnological group have two different kinds of winter dances—one called Yā’wiqa by the Kwakiutl, Nō’ntlem by the Tlatlasik˙oala, Tlōola’qa by the Wik’ē’nok, and Sisau’kh by the Bilqula; the other called Tsā’ek˙a, Tsē’tsa’ek˙a, or Tlōk˙oa’la, and Kū’siut by the same separate tribes. The former dance takes place during the month of November among the southern tribes, early in October among the Bilqula. The latter is danced from December to February by the Kwakiutl, and from November to January by the Bilqula.
The masks [illustrated] are used in the dance Sisau’kh of the Bilqula. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the mythical K˙ōmō’k˙oa and his wife. K˙ōmō’k˙oa is a sea monster, the father and master of the seals, who takes those who have capsized in their canoes to the bottom of the sea. This being plays a very important part in the legends of many clans, marrying a daughter of the ancestor, or lending him his powerful help. I believe these legends originally belonged to the Kwakiutl, and have been borrowed by the Bilqula. The name K˙ōmō’k˙oa is undoubtedly of Kwakiutl origin; it has also
