that accompanied modernity, but they constituted only a small minority of world Jewry. The much larger Jewish population of eastern Europe was also compelled to redefine its identity and relationship to the larger society. The particular social, political, and cultural contexts of eastern Europe took the process and project of Jewish assimilation, and the gender relations encoded within both, in vastly different directions from the nineteenth-century Western model.
1. Isaak Markus Jost, as cited by Ismar Schorsch, “From Wolfenbüttel to Wissenschaft: The Divergent Paths of Isaak Markus Jost and Leopold Zunz,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 22 (1977): 110.
2. On the mutual compatibility of assimilation and retention of Jewish identity, see Uriel Tal, Christians and Jews in Germany: Religion, Politics, and Ideology in the Second Reich, 1870–1914, trans. Noah Jonathan Jacobs (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975). On the potential for multiple identities, see Gary Cohen, “Jews in German Society: Prague, 1860–1914,” in Jews and Germans from 1860 to 1933: The Problematic Symbiosis, ed. David Bronsen (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1979), pp. 306–37. On the ethnic component of nineteenth-century French Jewish identity, see Phyllis Cohen Albert, “Ethnicity and Solidarity in Nineteenth-Century France,” in Mystics, Philosophers, and Politicians: Essays in Jewish Intellectual History in Honor of Alexander Altmann, ed. Jehuda Reinharz and Daniel Swetschinski (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1982), pp. 249–74, and Phyllis Cohen Albert, “L’intégration et la persistance de l’ethnicité chez les Juifs dans la France moderne,” in Histoire politique des Juifs de France, ed. Pierre Birnbaum (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1990), pp. 221–43.
3. A notable exception is the work of Marion Kaplan: "Tradition and Transition: The Acculturation, Assimilation and Integration of Jews in Imperial Germany—A Gender Analysis,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 27 (1982): 3–35; “Priestess and Hausfrau: Women and Tradition in the German-Jewish Family,” in The Jewish Family: Myths and Reality, ed. Steven M. Cohen and Paula E. Hyman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986), pp. 62–81; The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and The Jewish Feminist Movement in Germany: The Campaigns of the Jüdischer Frauenbund, 1904–1938 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
4. For an extended theoretical consideration of gender in historical research as well as historical case studies, see Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
5. For an elaboration of a sociological interpretation of assimilation, see Milton Gordon, Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion and National Origins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964). This work has had an enormous influence on modern Jewish historians, especially those educated in the United States. For one of the first studies sensitive to the distinction between acculturation and integration, see Todd Endelman, The Jews of Georgian England: Tradition and Change in a Liberal Society (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1979).
6. [Adolphe] Thiéry, Dissertation sur cette question: Est-il des moyens de rendre les Juifs plus heureux et plus utiles en France? (Paris, 1788), p. 66; reprinted in facsimile in La Révolution française et l’émancipation des Juifs (Paris: Editions d’Histoire Sociale, 1968), vol. 2.
7. Berr Isaac Berr, “Lettre d’un citoyen, membre de la ci-devant Communauté des Juifs de Lorraine, à ses confrères, à l’occasion du droit du Citoyen actif, rendu aux Juifs par le décret du 28 septembre 1791” (Nancy, 1791); reprinted in La Révolution française et l’émancipation des Juifs (Paris: Editions d’Histoire Sociale, 1968), 8:16–17.
8. See the sources cited in n. 2.
9. Jacob Toury, “Der Eintritt der Juden ins deutsche Bürgertum,” in Das Judentum in der deutschen Umwelt, 1800–1850, ed. Hans Liebeschütz and Arnold Paucker (Tübingen: Mohr, 1977), pp. 139–242.
10. See Michael Marrus, The Politics of Assimilation: A Study of the French Jewish Community at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 35–45; Marsha Rozenblit, The Jews of Vienna, 1867–1914: Assimilation and Community (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), pp. 1–2; Steven Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 1867–1938: A Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Robert S. Wistrich, The Jews of Vienna in the Age of Franz Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Calvin Goldscheider and Alan Zuckerman, The Transformation of the Jews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), pp. 44–49, 85–90.
11. I am relying here on the analysis of Marion Kaplan found in her “Tradition and Transition,” and “Priestess and Hausfrau,” as well as in her book The Making of the Jewish Middle Class.
12. Todd M. Endelman, “Introduction,” in Jewish Apostasy in the Modern World, ed. Todd M. Endelman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1987), p. 13.
13. Todd M. Endelman, “The Social and Political Context of Conversion in Germany and England,” in ibid., p. 90.
14. Deborah Hertz, “Seductive Conversion in Berlin, 1770–1809,” in ibid., pp. 58, 64, 67.
15. For a compelling analysis of this group and their social context, see Deborah Hertz, Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
16. Michael A. Meyer, The Origins of the Modern Jew (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967), pp. 85–114; Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), pp. 56, 120.
17. Hertz, Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin.
18. Kaplan, The Making of the Jewish Middle Class, pp. 69–84.
19. For an account of this dispute, see Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), p. 54.
20. Anna Kronthal, Posner Mübekuchen: Jugend Erinnerungen einer Posnerin (Munich, 1932), p. 27, as cited in Kaplan, “Priestess and Hausfrau,” p. 71.
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