the manuscript for publication. Particular thanks are due to Sylvia Ashdown, Chris Barkby and Sylvia Bentley for their patience and efficiency in typing the manuscript.
Christopher Pass, Bryan Lowes
ability-to-pay principle of taxation the principle that TAXATION should be based on the financial standing of the individual. Thus, persons with high income are more readily placed to pay large amounts of tax than people on low incomes. In practice, the ability-to-pay approach has been adopted by most countries as the basis of their taxation systems (see PROGRESSIVE TAXATION). Unlike the BENEFITS-RECEIVED PRINCIPLE OF TAXATION, the ability-to-pay approach is compatible with most governments’ desire to redistribute income from high income earners to low income earners. See REDISTRIBUTION-OF-INCOME PRINCIPLE OF TAXATION, POVERTY.
above-normal profit or excess profit a PROFIT greater than that which is just sufficient to ensure that a firm will continue to supply its existing product or service (see NORMAL PROFIT). Short-run (i.e. temporary) above-normal profits resulting from an imbalance of market supply and demand promote an efficient allocation of resources if they encourage new firms to enter the market and increase market supply. By contrast, long-run (i.e. persistent) above-normal profits (MONOPOLY or super-normal profits) distort the RESOURCE ALLOCATION process because they reflect the overpricing of a product by monopoly suppliers protected by BARRIERS TO ENTRY. See PERFECT COMPETITION.
above-the-line promotion the promotion of goods and services through media ADVERTISING in the press and on television and radio, as distinct from below-the-line promotion such as direct mailing and in-store exhibitions and displays. See SALES PROMOTION AND MERCHANDISING.
absenteeism unsanctioned absences from work by employees. The level of absenteeism in a particular firm often reflects working conditions and morale amongst workers in that firm and affects the firm’s PRODUCTIVITY. See SUPPLY-SIDE ECONOMICS.
Fig. 1 Absolute advantage. The relationship between resource input and output.
absolute advantage an advantage possessed by a country engaged in INTERNATIONAL TRADE when, using a given resource input, it is able to produce more output than other countries possessing the same resource input. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 with respect to two countries (A and B) and two goods (X and Y). Country A’s resource input enables it to produce either 100X or 100Y; the same resource input in Country B enables it to produce either 180X or 120Y. It can be seen that Country B is absolutely more efficient than Country A since it can produce more of both goods. Superficially this suggests that there is no basis for trade between the two countries. It is COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE, however, not absolute advantage, that determines whether international trade is beneficial or not, because even if Country B is more efficient at producing both goods it may pay Country B to specialize (see SPECIALIZATION) in producing good X at which it has the greater advantage.
absolute concentration measure see CONCENTRATION MEASURES.
ACAS see ADVISORY, CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION SERVICE.
accelerator the relationship between the amount of net or INDUCED INVESTMENT (gross investment less REPLACEMENT INVESTMENT) and the rate of change of NATIONAL INCOME. A rapid rise in income and consumption spending will put pressure on existing capacity and encourage businesses to invest, not only to replace existing capital as it wears out but also to invest in new plant and equipment to meet the increase in demand.
By way of simple illustration, let us suppose a business meets the existing demand for its product, utilizing 10 machines, one of which is replaced each year. If demand increases by 20%, it must invest in two new machines to accommodate that demand in addition to the one replacement machine.
Investment is thus, in part, a function of changes in the level of income: I = f(ΔY). A rise in induced investment, in turn, serves to reinforce the MULTIPLIER effect in increasing national income.
Fig. 2 Accelerator. The graph shows how gross national product and the level of investment vary over time. See entry.
The combined effect of accelerator and multiplier forces working through an investment cycle has been offered as an explanation for changes in the level of economic activity associated with the BUSINESS CYCLE. Because the level of investment depends upon the rate of change of GNP, when GNP is rising rapidly then investment will be at a high level, as producers seek to add to their capacity (time t in Fig. 2). This high level of investment will add to AGGREGATE DEMAND and help to maintain a high level of GNP. However, as the rate of growth of GNP slows down from time t onward, businesses will no longer need to add as rapidly to capacity, and investment will decline towards replacement investment levels. This lower level of investment will reduce aggregate demand and contribute towards the eventual fall in GNP. Once GNP has persisted at a low level for some time, then machines will gradually wear out and businesses will need to replace some of these machines if they are to maintain sufficient production capacity to meet even the lower level of aggregate demand experienced. This increase in the level of investment at time t1 will increase aggregate demand and stimulate the growth of GNP.
Like FIXED INVESTMENT, investment in stock is also to some extent a function of the rate of change of income so that INVENTORY INVESTMENT is subject to similar accelerator effects.
acceptance the process of guaranteeing a loan, which takes the form of a BILL OF EXCHANGE that will be repaid even if the original borrower is unable to pay. This is done by a commercial institution which signs, that it ‘accepts’, the bill drawn up by the borrower in return for a fee. See ACCEPTING HOUSE.
accepting house a MERCHANT BANK or similar organization that underwrites (guarantees to honour) a commercial BILL OF EXCHANGE in return for a fee. See DISCOUNT, REDISCOUNTING, DISCOUNT MARKET.
account period a designated trading period for the buying and selling of FINANCIAL SECURITIES on the STOCK EXCHANGE. On the UK stock market all trading takes place within a series of end-on fortnightly account periods. All purchases and sales agreed during a particular account period must be paid for or settled shortly after the end of the account period.
accounts the financial statements of an individual or organization prepared from a system of recorded financial transactions. Public limited JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES are required to publish their year-end financial statements, which must comprise at least a PROFIT-AND-LOSS ACCOUNT and BALANCE SHEET, to enable SHAREHOLDERS to assess their company’s financial performance during the period under review.
acquisition see TAKEOVER.
activity-based costs see COST DRIVERS.
activity rate or participation rate the proportion of a country’s total POPULATION that makes up the country’s LABOUR FORCE. For example, the UK’s total population in 2004 was 59 million and its labour force numbered 29 million, giving an overall activity rate of 49%. Similar activity rate calculations can be done for subsets of the population such as men, women, ethnic groups, etc.
The activity rate is influenced by social customs and government policies affecting,
