by c.915; d. after 957, probably at Glastonbury, Somerset, England). A member of the royal kindred of WESSEX (S England), Athelstan was appointed EALDORMAN (governor) of East Anglia by King ATHELSTAN (932). He was influential during the reigns of EDMUND (939–46) and EADRED (946–55), and was given authority additionally in eastern and C Mercia (949, 951), making him responsible for English rule in former Danish‐ruled territory.
Athelstan resigned after King EADWIG exiled DUNSTAN, and retired to Glastonbury Abbey (956 or 957). His father, three brothers and two sons were also ealdormen, the last in East Anglia (958–92). See also ENGLAND, FORMATION OF.
ATHOLL, KINGDOM OFA Pictish kingdom in highland (modern) E Scotland (N of R. Tay, within modern Perth and Kinross county). It was mentioned in 739 when its king Talorcan was drowned by ONUIST SON OF VURGUIST, king of FORTRIU. Its name (Gaelic, Athfotla, meaning ‘New Ireland') may indicate immigration by SCOTS (Irish). Atholl may have been the centre of a Pictish kingship S of the MOUNTH, and have become subordinate to Fortriu from the later 7th century. By 966, much of Atholl was ruled by a regional governor (see MORMAER). See also PICTS; KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.ATLANTIC, BATTLE OF THEA war of attrition in the Atlantic Ocean between British and Allied ships, and German vessels (mostly submarines) 1939–45; part of WORLD WAR II. It was mainly an Allied struggle to protect eastbound merchant ships from submarine attacks. Shipping losses were most severe between March 1941 and April 1943. The name was coined by Winston CHURCHILL on 6 March 1941.ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS
The atomic bomb, of huge destructive force, was developed during WORLD WAR II as a UK–American joint project (based on the Quebec Agreement, Aug. 1943). Bombs were deployed against Japan, destroying the cities of Hiroshima (6 Aug. 1945) and Nagasaki (9 Aug.). But in Aug. 1946 the USA ended co‐operation with the UK. Prime Minister Clement ATTLEE resolved (1947) to create an independent nuclear deterrent.
The UK built an atomic bomb (1952) and hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb (1957), but fell behind in missile technology, though other delivery methods were employed (e.g., aircraft; see ROYAL AIR FORCE). It arranged to buy US ‘Skybolt’ missiles (1960), but the Americans cancelled the project (1962).
In Dec. 1962 Harold MACMILLAN secured the US submarine‐launched ‘Polaris’ missile system to carry British warheads on British‐built Resolution‐class submarines (operational 1968–1996). From 1949 the US Air Force kept atomic bombs at its British bases, their use requiring British approval. In 1980, the government of Margaret THATCHER accepted 160 US ‘Cruise’ missiles on these terms (operational 1983–91), and ordered US ‘Trident’ missiles to replace Polaris.
The Trident system, based on four Vanguard‐class submarines, was introduced from 1994, and other types of nuclear weapons used by British forces (e.g., free‐fall bombs) were withdrawn (completed 1998), leaving Trident as the sole system. In 2006 the Labour government of Tony BLAIR decided to replace the submarines, but in 2010 the coalition government of David CAMERON postponed a final decision about manufacture. Following the Conservative election victory in 2015, the House of Commons voted in 2016 to renew the Trident system, and soon afterwards construction of the first new Dreadnought‐class submarine began. See also CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT.
ATREBATESsee BELGAEATTAINDERForfeiture of estates and titles imposed for felony or TREASON (from OFr. ataindre, meaning ‘to condemn’). In England from 1459, individuals were attainted by PARLIAMENT using a Bill of attainder, a non‐judicial conviction which declared the victim’s blood to be corrupted and disinherited his heirs. Victims were usually executed. Many noblemen were attainted during the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT and in the 16th century. Later victims included the earl of Strafford (Thomas WENTWORTH, 1641) and William LAUD (1644). The last victim was Lord Edward FITZGERALD (attainted posthumously by Irish Parliament, 1798).ATTERBURY, FRANCIS
(b. 6 March 1663 at Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England; d. 22 Feb. 1732 at Paris, France, aged 68). A Church of ENGLAND clergyman, Atterbury became prominent as a HIGH CHURCH and TORY preacher in London in the 1690s. In 1710 he assisted Dr Henry SACHEVERELL with his defence. He was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1711. In 1713, thanks to patronage from Viscount BOLINGBROKE, he became bishop of Rochester (1713).
Atterbury accepted the accession of King GEORGE I (1714), despite his preference for the ‘Old Pretender’ (Stuart claimant). George refused to favour him and Atterbury was enticed into Jacobite conspiracies. Arrested in Aug. 1722, he was deprived of his bishopric and exiled (1723). He served the Pretender 1725–8. See also JACOBITISM, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.
ATTLEE, CLEMENT
(b. 3 Jan. 1883 at Putney, Surrey, England; d. 8 Oct. 1967 at London, England, aged 84). Leader of the LABOUR PARTY 1935–55; British prime minister 1945–51.
Attlee became a barrister, taught at the London School of Economics, undertook social work in E London, and during WORLD WAR I rose to major. After serving as mayor of Stepney (1919–20), he became an MP (1922) and held junior office (1930–1). Taciturn by nature, he seemed an uninspiring choice as Party leader in Nov. 1935, but he skilfully consolidated his authority.
After Labour entered coalition government during WORLD WAR II (May 1940), Attlee was lord PRIVY SEAL, dominions secretary (1942–3), and lord president of the Council (1943–5), as well as deputy prime minister (1942–5).
As head of the first majority Labour government from July 1945, Attlee presided over NATIONALIZATION, INDIAN INDEPENDENCE and creation of the WELFARE STATE. His Cabinet included such strong personalities as Ernest BEVIN, Herbert MORRISON, Hugh DALTON, Stafford CRIPPS and Nye BEVAN. The 1950 election almost eliminated his majority and splits emerged over rearmament and NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE charges. After losing the 1951 election, Attlee gave priority to Party unity. He retired in 1955 and was created Earl Attlee.
ATTWOOD, THOMAS(b. 6 Oct. 1783 at Halesowen, Worcestershire, England; d. 6 March 1856 at Great Malvern, Worcestershire, aged 72). A banker’s son, Attwood founded the Birmingham Political Union in Jan. 1830 and orchestrated agitation in Britain for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM. He welcomed the Reform Act of 1832, but later endorsed CHARTISM. As an MP (1832–9), he repeatedly advocated paper money (see CURRENCY SCHOOL).AUDEN, W.H.(b. 21 Feb. 1907 at York, Yorkshire, England; d. 29 Sept. 1973 at Vienna, Austria, aged 66). A doctor’s son, educated at OXFORD University (1925–8), and schoolmaster (1930–5), Wystan Hugh Auden became a prolific writer. His early works, expressing an anti‐fascist outlook, reflected concerns of the 1930s. They included the poem Spain (1937), based on brief participation in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. After moving to the USA in Jan. 1939, Auden published overtly Christian work and co‐wrote the libretto for Igor Stravinksy’s opera The Rake’s Progress (1951). He returned to Oxford as professor of poetry (1956–61). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE, ENGLAND.AUGHRIM, BATTLE OFThe final major battle of the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), fought at Aughrim Hill in Co. Galway (W Ireland) on 12 July 1691. Protestant forces supporting King WILLIAM III (‘Williamites'), commanded by Baron van Ginkel (a Dutchman), defeated mainly Catholic forces supporting (the former king) JAMES VII/II (‘Jacobites'), commanded by the marquis of St‐Ruth (a Frenchman). Ginkel's victory led to the surrender of Jacobite forces. See also LIMERICK, TREATY OF.AUGUSTINE
(fl. from 596; d. 26 May between 604 and 609). A monk in Rome, Augustine was chosen by Pope Gregory the Great (596) to lead a Christian mission to the Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms. In 597, he and companions landed in KENT (SE England), where King ÆTHELBERT permitted them to preach. Soon afterwards Augustine was consecrated bishop (in Francia).
In 601 Gregory appointed Augustine as archbishop (effectively first archbishop of CANTERBURY) and instructed him to consecrate 12 bishops for southern
