commodification of learning” and that learning has become individualized and more expensive, widening the gap between the rich and the poor (p. 186). She argues that global economic changes that build on capitalism drive down labor and production costs. This means that skilled labor is underutilized and that people are being deskilled. An alternative view is that the business world is increasingly responsible for education. Increased worker responsibility for their learning and teamwork approaches are necessary in this global economy. Adult education and human resource development (HRD) have responded with broad-based workplace literacy programs and training and development packages designed to address a wide range of economy-driven needs (Finger, 2005b). Indeed, HRD and corollary concepts such as organizational learning have become a parallel adult education system, one lodged in the workplace where responsiveness to globalization is paramount.
The global economy is having an impact on learning in broader ways too. Education is viewed as a service (Guilbault, 2018). Some argue that students are consumers, and faculty and staff are customer service providers in this market-drive economy (Guilbault, 2018). As Koris and Nokelainen (2015) state, “Students expect to be treated as customers in terms of student feedback, classroom studies, and to some extent in terms of communication” (p. 128). Interestingly, they did not see themselves as customers when it came to grade expectation or curriculum (Koris & Nokelainen, 2015).
This shift to the marketplace as the primary site of adult learning has caused some adult educators to discuss the effect of neoliberalism on adult education. Neoliberalism is “a global system of political economy with interests in protecting and expanding the hegemony of private markets,” which ultimately results in less funding for social services and increased benefits to the wealthy (Abendroth, 2014, p. 18). Adult literacy programs grounded in Freirean concepts such as problem posing have closed as the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) meant federal funding for literacy was tied to workforce initiatives and “ABE [Adult Basic Education] instructors … felt pressure to become technocrats who provide a linear instruction for passing a high-stakes test” (p. 19).
Intertwined in globalization is a shift from a society employed in producing durable goods to one employed in providing services. Given the United States's aging population, it is not surprising that health care is one of the top five industries driving the economy (Deutch, 2018). Healthcare sector jobs increased 20% since 2008 and they are expected to grow another 18% by 2026 (Deutch, 2018). The top job sector in the United States is retail (Deutch, 2018). Business and professional services are also expected to continue to expand into the 2020s as they have in recent decades (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). The brisk growth of the service sector is paralleled by rapid growth in professional and related occupations.
The important thing about these projections is that these two occupations are at the opposite ends of the education and earnings distribution. That is, professional occupations require extensive educational preparation and are generally well-rewarded. Service jobs require lower educational credentials, with corresponding lower job rewards. (Bills, 2004, p. 97)
Concurrent with the shift to a service economy is the shift to what has been called the information society—a shift that has had a major impact on workers as economic units. Skills learned in preparation for a job or career cannot keep pace with the demands of the world of work, the ability to learn becomes a valuable skill in and of itself. This factor is underscored by the fact that a skill's half-life is 5 years—that is, a skill learned 5 years ago is half as valuable as it was when it was learned (Kasriel, 2017); in high-tech areas software engineers may need to upgrade their skills every 12 to 18 months (Gurchiek, 2017).
In this fast-paced tech world, trainers are wondering how to best serve workers. “Micro-learning” or providing workers with short learning sessions when they need the skill is one method that is being used (Gurchiek, 2017, para. 10). Other suggestions for those in business settings include centralizing training, using text messages to encourage workers to complete their training, and delivering training in classrooms, on computers, and via cell phones (Gurchiek, 2017).
In the future, jobs will be increasingly automated, and more positions will be taken by robots. There is concern that technology will usurp the jobs of those who drive cars and trucks, workers in middle management, and even stock market analysts. How will educators, trainers, and workers need to adapt? Findings from a Pew Research study reveal that respondents believe that job education will be accomplished in multiple ways on multiple platforms from in-person training to self-directed learning, to engaging in virtual reality scenarios. Workers will be encouraged to gain skills in things that are less likely to be replicated by artificial intelligence. Such skills as creativity, collaboration, “complex communication” and the “ability to thrive in diverse environments” will be stressed (Rainie & Anderson, 2017, para. 14). They predict that mentoring and apprenticeships will be increasingly used in the workplace (Rainie & Anderson, 2017). Leadership and conflict resolution skills will still be in demand (Rainie & Anderson, 2017). Although college degrees will still be important, employers may accept other forms of credentialing, such as digital badges, and competency may be measured in “real world work portfolios” (para. 20). Some fear that training will not meet the needs of those seeking employment in the near future because of a lack of funding, jobs changing too quickly, and the challenge inherent in teaching soft skills (Rainie & Anderson, 2017).
Developing simultaneously with the emphasis on learning to learn is the notion of the learning organization (see Chapter 2). To survive in the global economy, organizations must learn quickly (Serrat, 2017). The growing body of literature on the learning organization positions learning, information processing, and problem-solving skills as central to the survival of both the individual worker and the organization. Kanten, Kanten, and Gurlek (2015) recognize the importance of the learning organization in the age of globalization. They note, “Due to globalization, rapid changes, and [a]diverse workforce, learning organizations have become an important factor for organizations to gain competitive advantage. Learning organizations are considered a key process which contributes to organizational success” (p. 1359).
Closely related to shifts to a service and information economy are changes in America's labor force. As previously mentioned, the service sector jobs are expected to grow followed by jobs in the health and social assistance sector (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). Not surprisingly, women, minorities, and the elderly are overrepresented in the lower paying service jobs. Since the mid- 1950s, however, the labor force has changed from one dominated by blue-collar occupations to one where most jobs are considered white collar. Changes in the composition of the workforce are also occurring along racial and ethnic lines. Although White non-Hispanic workers account for the majority of workers −78% in 2017—(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), the percentage of White non-Hispanics in the labor force has declined 2% since 2005 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005) while the percentage of people of color in the workforce has risen. African Americans comprise 13% of the workforce compared to 11% in 2005, whereas Hispanics made up 17% of the workforce in 2017 compared to 13% in 2005 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005, 2018). Asians account for 6% of the labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Perhaps the greatest change of all has been the participation of women in the workforce. “In 1950, there were 18.4 million women in the labor force, which accounted for about one-third of the total labor force” (Toossi & Morisi, 2017, p. 3). By 2024, “women in the labor force will increase to 77.2 million… for a 47.2% share” (p. 3). Economic necessity and the freeing of occupations traditionally assigned to men have contributed to this change.
In summary, economic factors are shaping the nature of our society, and by extension, the nature of learning that adults are most likely to undertake. A global economy, the shift to a service and information society, and consequent changes in the configuration of the labor force are determining to a large extent where learning takes place, what is offered, and who participates.
Technology
Technology has changed
