suppressing Mithridates with a systematic brutality that would become his trademark, Sulla returned to Italy in 83 BC to renew the civil war with Marius' followers; Marius having died in 86 BC. A list of between 2000 and 9000 of Marius' followers was published. They could be freely killed and their property seized and distributed to Sulla's supporters. Sulla declared himself dictator for an indefinite term and began instituting reforms aimed at restoring the Senate to power, before retiring to private life on his country estate in Campania.
Perhaps the most fatal consequence of the struggle between Marius and Sulla was a fundamental change in the Roman army, introduced by Marius. Historically, the Roman legions were conscripted for short‐term duty from among the property‐owning citizens. Marius changed that practice when he began recruiting soldiers from among the propertyless poor for long‐term enlistments. Professional armies recruited by the generals replaced the citizen soldiers of the early Republic. This resulted in a basic shift in the loyalty of the legions from the Republic to the general who recruited them, and to whom they looked for their pay, a share in the booty from successful campaigns, and a grant of land to retire on when their enlistment was over. Such “professional” armies could be, and were, used by ambitious generals against the Republic.
The career of Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) is an apt example. Julius Caesar was an ambitious aristocrat who in 59 BC was able to form what is referred to as the First Triumvirate with two other equally ambitious and talented figures, Gnaeus Pompey (106–48 BC) and Marcus Licinius Crassus (112–53 BC).
Pompey was a very popular general. He had fought as an ally of Sulla against Marius, defeated Mithridates of Pontus, rid the Mediterranean Sea of pirates, suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus (111–71 BC), and was elected consul in 70 BC along with Crassus. Pompey was also married to Julius Caesar's daughter Julia.
Unlike Pompey and Caesar, Crassus lacked military talent, but made up for the deficiency by being rich. Indeed, he was called Dives, “the rich!” Following Caesar's election as consul in 59 BC, the three co‐conspirators, although still rivals, joined together in an informal, illegal conspiracy to dominate the Roman Republic. Each member of the First Triumvirate sought to further his career. Crassus hoped to gain a reputation as a successful general by attacking the Kingdom of Parthia in the East. The disastrous campaign resulted in one of the most humiliating defeats for the Roman legions and the death of Crassus at the hands of the Parthians.
Pompey, being the senior partner in the Triumvirate, remained in Rome, while Julius Caesar became a proconsul over Gaul (modern France). In a series of brilliant military campaigns, Caesar conquered Gaul, twice invaded Britain, and crossed the Rhine River in an expedition against the Germans. Caesar kept his admiring public informed of his exploits in regular dispatches, written in the third person. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War remain one of the classics of Latin literature.
Caesar's growing popularity led to a rupture in his relationship with Pompey, especially after the death of Julia, who worked hard at keeping the peace between the two rivals. In 52 BC, Pompey was elected sole consul and given dictatorial powers. When the Senate called upon Caesar to give up his military command, he sensed a conspiracy to bring about his downfall, and perhaps his death. In 49 BC, Caesar led his loyal legions against Rome. Pompey fled to Greece, where he was decisively defeated by Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.
Pompey sought refuge in Egypt following his defeat, where he was murdered as he disembarked at Alexandria. Caesar spent the years between 48 and 45 BC subduing Pompey's supporters in North Africa, Spain, and the Middle East. While in Egypt, Caesar was entertained by Queen Cleopatra (c. 70–30 BC). Cleopatra gave birth to a son by Julius Caesar in 47 BC. She named him Caesarion, “little Caesar” (47–30 BC).
When Caesar returned to Rome, his enemies vanquished, he quickly gathered together in his hands all of the power of the principle offices of the Republic. Apparently, Caesar recognized that the republican government was unsuited for governing so vast an empire and felt that only a dictatorship could restore peace and stability, and provide efficient government. He used his powers to institute far‐reaching reforms, including codification of the laws, colonies, and land reform for the poor, an end to tax farming, a new calendar, and a reorganization of local government in Italy.
Not everyone was pleased with Caesar's reforms. A conspiracy formed within the Senate among those who feared Caesar might reestablish a monarchy. On the Ides of March (March 15) 44 BC the conspirators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus (c. 85–42 BC) and Marcus Junius Brutus (85–42 BC) assassinated Caesar in the Senate chambers.
If the conspirators felt that by murdering Julius Caesar, they could save the Republic, they were mistaken. A Second Triumvirate soon took form, as two of Caesar's lieutenants, Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius, c. 82–30 BC) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (c. 89/88–13/12 BC) joined forces with Julius Caesar's nephew and heir, Octavian (Gaius Julius Octavianus, 63 BC–AD 14). The Senatorial armies, led by Brutus and Cassius, were defeated at Philippi in Greece in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Octavian. Brutus and Cassius chose suicide, rather than being taken captive. Lepidus was forced to retire to North Africa in 36 BC. Mark Antony and Octavian divided the empire between them, with Mark Antony taking the peaceful and more prosperous East, and Octavian taking the West along with Rome, itself.
Once in the East, Mark Antony fell fully under the spell of Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, with whom he took up residence in Alexandria. In 37 BC, Mark Antony divorced his pregnant wife, Olivia, Octavian's sister, and married Cleopatra. Mark Antony's lifestyle took on the appearance of an oriental potentate. In a grand ceremony staged in 34 BC, Mark Antony proclaimed Caesarion to be Julius Caesar's rightful heir. He also gave Roman provinces in the East to Cleopatra and her three sons.
Octavian was quick to publicize Mark Antony's outrageous act and portray him and Cleopatra as a threat to Rome. The Senate outlawed Mark Antony and declared war on Cleopatra in 31 BC. The decisive battle of Actium took place the next year off the coast of Greece. Cleopatra and Mark Antony fled back to Egypt. Mark Antony committed suicide, followed by Cleopatra, when she discovered that Octavian would not become her next conquest.
Pax Romana
When Octavian returned to Rome following the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, he was the undisputed master of the Roman Republic. In the years that followed, he proved himself to be a gifted politician and one of history's truly great rulers. Presenting himself as savior of the Republic and the one who restored peace, he completed the transformation of the Republic begun by Julius Caesar. Realizing that he had to avoid alienating the Senate and thereby avoid suffering the same fate as Julius Caesar, Octavian created an imperial system of government and civil service that concentrated power in the emperor's hands, while giving the illusion of republican rule for those who chose to believe it so. For example, Octavian allowed the Senate to govern the provinces that were at peace, while reserving to the emperor all of the frontier provinces where the legions were stationed under command of the emperor. Ultimately, Octavian's power rested on his command of the army, as did that of all subsequent emperors.
Octavian ruled constitutionally by monopolizing the key offices of the Republic. While this practice maintained the fiction of a Republic, it created a fatal problem that was never successfully resolved, the question of succession. How does the transition from one emperor to the next take place peacefully? This problem was solved only once, during the period of the so‐called “Five Good Emperors,” between AD 96 and 180.
The form of imperial government established by Octavian is referred to as the Principate, taken from the title he preferred, Princeps, or “First Citizen.” Octavian was granted a variety of titles, among them Imperator Caesar Augustus, or simply Augustus (the Revered), conferred on him by the Senate in 27 BC, and by which he is known after that date. As the emperor Augustus, he promoted the restoration of the old Roman virtues, became
