in the course of a life trajectory? In addressing these questions, I pay close attention to George Herbert Mead’s theories of the emergence of the self, and I also consider the ways in which his ideas have been developed in the sociological tradition of symbolic interactionism. The extremely subtle distinctions we often make in developing shared understandings about self-identity, as elucidated in the sociological writings of Erving Goffman, are also examined in this chapter. Finally, the chapter addresses the wider field of social theory and considers how self-identity links to social influences that are increasingly global in their implications and consequences. Here, the writings of the British sociologist Anthony Giddens are discussed and critically evaluated.
Chapter 2 concentrates on psychoanalytic concepts of the self, with Freud’s theory of the unconscious a major theme. The chapter is centrally concerned with the inner world of the self – the internal conflicts and unacceptable desires excluded from the conscious mind through processes of displacement, denial and repression. At the very least, Freud shows us that there is always a considerable gap between what we imagine and what we are, the space between the private self and social identity. Strangeness, foreignness, otherness, ambivalence, incompleteness and insufficiency: at the core of Freud’s theory of the unconscious are both forbidding and forbidden desires; the unconscious escapes explanation in terms of rationality or logic, and radically revises our common-sense understandings of the self as knowable, predictable and controlled; the repressed unconscious represents, in Freud’s view, both blindness and insight. Such riddles of the psyche as deciphered by Freud have proved attractive to various cultural analysts and social theorists interested in tracking the fate of the individual self in contemporary culture. From the writings of German critical theorist Herbert Marcuse to the Slovenian cultural critic Slavoj Žižek, the Freudian conception of self has been at the centre of radical social criticism, and my discussion in this chapter traces both the conceptual gains and the blind alleys of psychoanalytic interrogations of the self.
The cultural regulations governing the manner in which individuals construct their identities against an array of social differences have long been a preoccupation of authors influenced by structural forms of analysis. Language is assumed to be at the core of the relation between self and society in structuralist-inspired social theory, specifically the organizing principles of personal identity, on the one hand, and social differences, on the other. Chapter 3 examines the contribution of the late French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault to the analysis of the self, power and language or discourse. Foucault’s attempts to identify the systems of power through which individuals imprison themselves at the level of the self and individual subjectivity are discussed. His audaciously original argument that the relationship of the individual to society and history can be traced to a whole technology of the self is critically appraised, as is his emphasis on modern forms of psychotherapy for the coercive management of the self. The chapter concludes by considering the work of other scholars influenced by Foucault, including the so-called school of governmentalities, for theorizing the relation between self and society.
Chapter 4 focuses on the nature of gender and its relation to the self. Feminism holds that the social world is pervaded by gender, that men and women are socialized into distinct patterns of relating to each other, and that masculine and feminine senses of self are tied to asymmetrical relations of gender power. How is gender power reproduced at the level of the self? How do men and women acquire a distinct sense of masculine or feminine gender identity? The writings of two feminists strongly influenced by psychoanalysis, Nancy Chodorow and Julia Kristeva, are critically examined against this backdrop. I look in particular at the very different concepts of the self articulated by Chodorow and Kristeva, and compare their blending of feminism and psychoanalysis. Gender is also at the heart of contemporary anxiety about sexual choice, erotic orientation, and the bridging of sexuality and the performance or enactment of gender. The work of the radical sexual feminist, Judith Butler, on strategies for the subversion of gender identity is discussed in this context, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of recent gay and lesbian scholarship on the self as well as critical evaluation of queer theory.
Interpretations of the search for self-identity tend to divide around the issue of the extension of global social processes to everyday life and the impact of new communication technologies and mass-consumer cultures upon the personalized contexts in which experience is constituted. Some see the self in the contemporary epoch as increasingly frail, fractured and fragmented. Just as traditional forms of social integration have broken down, so also does the self. In an age of global capitalism and media saturation, the self dissolves. Others have reached a similar conclusion, but see the end result differently: not so much a dissolution as a rebirth – the emergence of new, postmodern forms of experience and identity. The debate about postmodernity is taken up in Chapter 5. There I address the issue of why postmodernism is at once so emotionally exhilarating and disturbing for current experiences of selfhood. In an era where global changes in employment, leisure, knowledge, media production and intimacy are increasingly rapid and disruptive, new challenges and new burdens arise for personal identity and the self. In Chapter 6, I turn to address the massive consequences arising from developments in artificial intelligence for the self and personal life today. From the debate over robots eroding jobs to the re-engineering of social interactions as a result of intelligent machines, the contours of self-experience change significantly in an age of advanced AI, robotics and accelerating automation. Finally, in Chapter 7, I consider recent debates in social theory over reinvention and mobilities, and examine the refashioning of the self through new mobility processes and regimes associated with globalization.
A final remark about the scope of this book. I have tried to develop in the pages that follow a concise introduction to some of the major concepts and theories of the self in contemporary social theory and social science. The book is not intended as an exhaustive discussion of the topic; in analysing the major theories of self in social theory today – from psychoanalysis and queer theory to postmodern approaches – I have tried to keep the discussion lively and concise, and this means some sacrifice in respect of detail and complexity. Nonetheless, my hope is that the reader finds this critical introduction to the self substantial and engaging. If the reader is encouraged to delve deeper into current debates over the self as a consequence of this book, then its purpose will have been served.
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