previously discussed, plants may be naturally sexually or asexually propagated. Further, sexually propagated species may be self‐fertilized or cross‐fertilized. These natural modes of reproduction have implications in the genetic structure and constitution of plants and breeding implications as already discussed. Plant breeders are able to manipulate the natural reproductive systems of species to develop plants that have atypical genetic constitution. The terms pure line, inbred line, and clone are applied to materials developed by plant breeders to connote sameness of genetic constitution in some fashion. However, there are some significant distinctions among them.
Pure linesThese genotypes are developed as cultivars of self‐pollinated crops for direct use by farmers. As products of repeated selfing of single plants, pure lines are homogeneous and homozygous and can be naturally maintained by selfing.
Inbred linesThese are genotypes that are developed to be used as parents in the production of hybrid cultivars and synthetic cultivars in the breeding of cross‐pollinated species. They are not meant for direct release for use by farmers. They are homogenous and homozygous, just like pure lines. However, unlike pure lines, they need to be artificially maintained because they are produced by forced selfing (not natural selfing) of naturally cross‐pollinated species.
ClonesClones are identical copies of a genotype. Together, they are phenotypically homogeneous. However, individually, they are highly heterozygous. Asexually or clonally propagated plants produce genetically identical progeny.
7.3 Categories of clonally propagated species based on economic use
Clonally propagated species may be divided into several broad categories on the basis of economic use:
Those cultivated for a vegetative product – Important species vegetatively cultivated for a vegetative product include sweet potatoes, yams, cassava, sugarcane, and Irish potatoes. These species tend to exhibit certain reproductive abnormalities. For example, flowering is reduced, and so is fertility. Some species such as potatoes have cytoplasmic male sterility. Sometimes, flowering is retarded (e.g. by chemicals) in production (e.g. in sugarcane).
Those cultivated for a fruit – Plants in this category include fruit trees and cane fruits. Examples include apple, pear, grape, strawberry, and banana.
Those cultivated for floral products – Plant in this category include tulips and many cut flower species.
7.4 Categories of clonally propagated species for breeding purposes
For breeding purposes, vegetatively propagated crops may be grouped into four types based on flowering behavior as follows:
1 3 Those with normal flowers and seed setSpecies in this category produce normal flowers and are capable of sexual reproduction (to varying extents) without artificial intervention (e.g. sugar cane). However, in crop production, the preference is to propagate them sexually. Such species enjoy the advantages of both sexual and asexual reproduction. Hybridization is used to generate recombinants (through meiosis) and introduce new genes into the adapted cultivar, while vegetative propagation is used to indefinitely maintain the advantages of the heterozygosity arising from hybridization.
2 4 Those with normal flowers but poor seed setSome plant species produce normal‐looking flowers that have poor seed set, or set seed only under certain conditions but not under others. These restrictions on reproduction make it unattractive to use seed as a means of propagation. However, the opportunity for hybridization may be exploited to transfer genes into adapted cultivars.
3 5 Produce seed by apomixisThe phenomenon of apomixis results in the production of seed without fertilization, as was first discussed in Chapter 6. Over 100 species of perennial grasses have this reproductive mechanism.
4 6 Non‐flowering speciesThese species may be described as “obligate asexually propagated species” because they have no other choice. Without flowers (or with sterile flowers) those species can only be improved by asexual means. Genetic diversity is not obtained via recombination but by other sources (e.g. mutation).
7.5 Types of clonal propagation
Clonal propagation can be a natural process or artificially conducted.
Natural clonal propagationClones are common in nature. Clonal propagation is important for many herbaceous species as well as woody perennial plants throughout the world. The genera Prunus and Populus produce clones by suckering, while Betula, Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, Salix, and Tilia are all genera with the ability to self‐coppice.
Artificial clonal propagationSome crops are commercially produced by clonal propagation using various parts (e.g. tubers, corms, bulbs, stolons, etc.). Some species are obligated to this mode of propagation because they have lost their capacity to flower (e.g. leek, some potato cultivars). However, some of these species that are produced clonally as a preference may also have viable sexual reproduction as an option (e.g. potato, strawberry). In fact, some species with flowering capabilities have a long tradition of being reproduced clonally (e.g. apple, roses, ornamental trees, and shrubs). Plants derived from true seeds of those same species often have a long juvenile stage, and take a long time to reach commercially interesting size (orchids, tulips, chrysanthemum, potato). Artificial methods of clonal propagation include cuttings, grafting, and the more sophisticated laboratory technique of tissue culture. For orchids, in vitro clonal propagation is the only commercially viable method of micropropagation.Clonal multiplication of the cultivar is very important in horticulture and silviculture (tree production). The first step in clonal propagation is to identify and select a genetically superior (elite) plant. The part of the plant used as a propagule varies among species and includes stem, roots, bulbs, and stolons as stated previously.
7.6 Importance of clonal propagation in plant breeding
Clonal propagation has several significant applications in plant breeding.
Quick production of quality breeding and planting stockIn tree breeding, somatic propagation of trees is advantageous over the use of seeds to raise stock. It is fast and economical. Breeding time is shortened by using micropropagation.
Early flower inductionClonally propagated plants are known to flower earlier than seed‐produced plants. This helps to speed up the reproductive cycle of the species and hence accelerate the breeding and testing time in a breeding program.
Germplasm maintenanceGenotypes in clonal banks are maintained by clonal propagation. Clonal testing can be conducted to evaluate the accessions and their interaction with environment in a greenhouse setting.
Maintenance of genetic uniformityCross‐pollinated species are naturally highly heterozygous, resulting in the progenies from such genotypes not only being true to type, but also missing some of the parental qualities. Clonal propagation is used to maintain the genetic characteristics of species.
Production of disease‐free plantsVegetative propagation techniques such as grafting the in vitro culture of specific tissues can produce healthy clones from disease‐susceptible species.
Propagating problematic speciesSome species produce few or no viable seeds, or may have seed dormancy issues, while others have seeds with poor germination capacity. Sometimes, germination is very slow, causing such species to take a long time to produce
