Ecology. Michael Begon

      This fifth edition first published 2021 © 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

      Edition History 4e, Wiley, 2006; 3e, Wiley, 1996; 2e, Wiley 1990; 1e, Wiley, 1986

      All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

      The right of Michael Begon and Colin R. Townsend to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

      Registered Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

      Editorial Office 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

      For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

      Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

      Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

       Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

      Names: Begon, Michael, author. | Townsend, Colin R., author.

      Title: Ecology : from individuals to ecosystems / Michael Begon, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK, Colin Townsend, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.

      Description: Fifth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

      Identifiers: LCCN 2020012775 (print) | LCCN 2020012776 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119279358 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119279372 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119279310 (epub)

      Subjects: LCSH: Ecology.

      Classification: LCC QH541 .B415 2020 (print) | LCC QH541 (ebook) | DDC 577–dc23

      LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020012775 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020012776

      Cover Design: Wiley

      Cover Credit: Decorators painting wall © Dougal Waters/Getty Images

      Panel of Native American Newspaper Rock petroglyphs © milehightraveler/Getty Image