can reduce uncertainty and anxiety and influence what messages the public receives. Creating some sense of control and, thus, order is critical during the uncertainty and chaos of a crisis. Finally, a theory can help guide research by creating questions that can be tested and by generating new theories. Theory guides research by pointing to the questions that need to be answered and by putting them in a form that can be answered. Once research is completed, the results can be placed in the theoretical framework to refine the propositions further or, in some cases, demonstrate that the theory is incorrect. In this case, an entirely new set of propositions is needed. Thus, theory is tested through research. A theory cannot be proven to be entirely accurate or correct, however, because there are always new cases. It is more accurate, therefore, to say a theory has received support than to claim it is true or proven.
Table 2.3 Functions of Theory.
| Organize observations of a phenomenon or sets of related phenomenaDescribe what is observedExplain the relationships between constructsPredict what will happen in a particular circumstanceControl the outcome when it is possible to predictInform practice by helping people understand what is happeningFacilitate critique by promoting understanding of what can happenPromote inquiry and research by helping investigators form questionsPromote other theory building by proving related insights |
Within the structure of the “If A then B” proposition is the explicit expectation that A is related to B is some way. The connection between A and B may take many forms and sometimes the form is not clear or self-evident. The most obvious form is that A causes B, but causality is very difficult to establish, particularly in the social sciences, where individuals make choices about their behavior. Cause implies a direct almost law-like relationship between variables that is rare in cases of human behavior, although it is still the goal of some theoretical perspectives. In other theories, the expected relationship may be simply temporal, that A precedes B in some logical way. Many developmental theories are grounded in this form of relationship, assuming that A must occur before B can occur and that completing A makes room for B. It may also be that A is correlated with B in the sense that the two are connected in either a positive or negative way. A positive relationship means a change in A results in a change in B in the same direction, where a negative correlation indicated that changes in one direction in A results in a change in the opposite direction in B. Some theories specify multi-directional relationships where A influences B and B also influences A. A structural relationship between A and B may occur when they are both part of a larger system, such as a cultural system, creating a relationship where one is related to the other.
This “If A then B” structure underlies most theories, as theories do take many other forms. One form is the taxonomy, which might be framed as “A is not B, is not C, is not D.” A taxonomy is a system of classification whereby some groups of phenomena are sorted according to their types. Table 1.2 presented three common crisis taxonomies. The value of a taxonomy is that it specifies similarities and differences. As with definitions, taxonomies help clarify the range of concepts under investigation. A second form of theory is the model; in fact, all theories can be described as models in the sense that they are representations or abstractions of the real world. The theory “If a condition is perceived to be a crisis, then people will experience high levels of uncertainty” is a verbal model. The description is a verbal representation or model. There are also pictorial models, such as the food recall model presented in Chapter 4, or models of hurricane tracks and land falls. Mathematical models, system models, scale models, and hybrid models are also used in research. Each seeks to represent reality and describe the relationship between elements. Models are particularly helpful in demonstrating relationships such as time, sequence, or proximity. They can help clarify and visualize the relationships between elements of the theory, especially when those relationships are complex.
Another distinction sometimes made between theories is logical positivist versus social constructivist approaches. These approaches represent two philosophical orientations and tend to be associated with different methodological stances. Logical positivism is a rational approach to human behavior that follows empirical assumptions. According to this approach, the truth or accuracy of a statement lies in its ability to be empirically verified. Logical positivists believe in a material reality that can be measured and verified through empirical observation. They seek more law-like relationships in their efforts to understand behavior. In contrast, constructivists or social constructivist approaches typically favor more qualitative approaches and argue that much of meaning is socially constructed through perception, interaction, and language. For the students of theory, it is important to understand that these philosophical stances underlie various propositions and influence how the propositions are formulated. Both approaches are represented in theories of crisis communication.
Theories may also be described as specialized, narrow, or grand. A specialized theory is a narrow proposition designed for a very limited application or circumstance. Most crisis theories are relatively specialized formulations developed to explain specific phenomena. A grand theory is a formulation that seeks to describe and explain a much broader range of phenomena. These theories are appealing in that they have the potential to unify many more limited theories and create an overall picture of the phenomenon under investigation. Chaos theory, with very wide-ranging application as described in Chapter 6, is one such theory. While chaos theory explains a great deal, it falls short of being a grand theory in that it does not create a complete understanding of any one phenomenon. When a set of propositions becomes general and abstract, it is called a paradigm. “A paradigm can be viewed as a set of basic beliefs (or metaphysics) that deals with ultimates or first principles” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 107). It is a mental window or worldview that specifies elements, relationships, and assumptions. According to Kuhn (1962), a paradigm can also be described as a “coherent set of concepts, principles, assumptions, and basic axioms that have come to be accepted by a sufficiently significant number of researchers or practitioners in the field” (cited in Dills & Romiszowski, 1997, p. xi). Probably the most popular paradigm in communication research is systems theory, which outlines the general dynamic homeostasis that characterizes the relationship between supra systems, systems, and subsystems (Bertalanffy, 1950). According to systems theory, various forms of feedback maintain stability by regulating the operation of systems. As a paradigm, systems theory is too general to generate specific testable hypotheses. Nonetheless, it has been widely influential in the formulation of other theories.
Theories are also sometimes described as emergent when they are in the early stages of development. As propositions are offered, tested, refined, and critiqued, more scholars may find they have utility. When this happens, theories typically reach some level of development where they are no longer emergent but represent mainstream sets of ideas that have been agreed upon and accepted as useful. Grounded theory is a qualitative approach designed to lead to the emergence of new theories. Rather than following the traditional approach of beginning with a theory and testing its propositions through the collection of data or observations, this approach begins with data and allows the propositions to emerge (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Observations are coded, concepts are developed, observations are categorized, and theoretical propositions are then generated.
Finally, theories themselves may be loosely grouped or categorized by similar characteristics in form, function, or area of explanation. These families of theories, such as developmental theories, mass communication theories, or theories of warning, typically focus on similar issues or phenomena. In doing so, they comment on one another and create a richer, more complete understanding of the area being examined. Often within a family of theory there are conflicting and competing formulations and research is required to sort out which is the most useful explanation. Image repair theories of crisis are a family of related theories that, taken together, provide a rich perspective to explain how organizations respond to crises. Various theories of warning address the challenges of disseminating messages about impending risks under conditions of uncertainty that will motivate people to take appropriate action.
Critiquing Theory
As
