the second decade of the twenty‐first century, countries began developing a broad set of “sustainable development goals” intended to help the United Nations develop new targets after the Millennium Development Goals had run their course by 2015. By integrating these sustainable development goals with conventional, high‐level development discussions at the UN, countries made it clear that the concept of sustainability is fundamental to development.
In September 2015, to a standing ovation from many world leaders, 193 nations unanimously adopted the UN Sustainable Development Agenda as a “blueprint for development.” UN Secretary‐General Ban Ki‐moon welcomed the decision, calling it “an agenda for people, to end poverty in all its forms … It is an agenda for shared prosperity, peace and partnership (that) conveys the urgency of climate action (and) is rooted in gender equality and respect for the rights of all. Above all, it pledges to leave no one behind.” This agenda sets forth 169 targets supporting 17 Goals for 2030. As the next step beyond the Millennium Development Goals, these Sustainable Development Goals reflect a concerted global effort to provide for the growing number of people on the planet by alleviating poverty, improving livelihoods, and sustaining the ecosystems necessary to maintain all of the Earth’s inhabitants in the coming decades. We have included these goals below, as they are relevant to every chapter in this book. As you think about where “development” is headed, consider what actions governments will need to take to realize all of these goals and how different the world might look if some or all of the goals are achieved.
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals:
1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well‐being for all at all ages.
4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
8 Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.
9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
10 Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.
15 Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.
16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.
Now sustainable development is more integrated and global development goals are increasingly focused on the social and environmental basis of well‐being in addition to conventional economic indicators. Countries have adopted ambitious targets and indicators, and the world is watching to see what kind of progress can be made in the coming years to meaningfully advance towards these goals – including whether wealthy nations will step up financial and other assistance to help achieve these goals.
Development Assistance and Foreign Aid
It’s one thing to have development plans; it’s another thing to make it happen. Planning and building a more sustainable world is not cheap or easy. The United Nations has set an aid target for the rich countries to contribute 0.7 percent of their wealth (as determined by their GNP) towards official development assistance (“ODA”) for developing countries. As of 2017, US $135 billion flowed through official development assistance channels.
Foreign aid is used regularly to help donor nations achieve their political objectives and can include military aid as well as economic assistance. Development assistance is usually given with the objective of helping a nation develop, often in exchange for the recipient country making changes or promises to use the money a certain way. More than two thirds of ODA ($98 billion in 2016) flows bilaterally, that is from a specific donor country directly to a specific recipient country. The remaining tens of billions flow multilaterally through international institutions and funds that help channel money for specific development purposes.
Multilateral institutions that control the biggest flows of development finance include the World Bank and regional public financial institutions such as the Asian, African, and Inter‐American Development Banks. The Global Environment Facility, established during the 1922 Rio Earth Summit and headquartered at the World Bank, helps administer development assistance to support the environment. UN institutions such as the United Nations Development Programme also have specific rules for administering development projects across the world. More specialized funds, such as the Green Climate Fund and Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, help channel funding flows in support of specific issues like fighting infectious diseases and climate change.
Curiously, even though the overall development model has moved past the focus on national incomes, the “developed” and “developing” country divide continues to be officially based on average per capita incomes. As of 2018, some 150 countries were considered “developing countries” (the vast majority of countries in the world) based on per capita incomes below US $12,276.14 Note that climate finance is seen as separate and additional to official development aid, as politically countries view climate finance as obligatory payments by wealthy historic emitters for the costs of coping with climate impacts caused by their emissions. Adding to the already complicated picture of development assistance, some island nations have been deemed ineligible due to inequality: one or two billionaires on a small island can raise the average GDP beyond the average income threshold, even though many countries on the list had not yet met the Millennium Development Goals.15
Speaking of billionaires, while it is primarily countries who command the billions for official development assistance, private actors and philanthropy are increasingly significant players. Perhaps most substantial is “The Giving Pledge,” a most unusual effort by two American billionaires – Bill Gates and Warren Buffett – to get other billionaires around the world to give at least half of their wealth to charities, as they are doing.16 As of 2018, 187 billionaires from 22 countries had signed the pledge.17
