perspective on the power of cooperative goal structures to enhance noncognitive goals was highlighted by Marika Ginsburg-Block, Cynthia Rohrbeck, and John Fantuzzo (2006). They conducted a meta-analysis on the effects of peer-assisted learning on elementary school students' social skills, self-concept, and behavior. They found effect sizes of .52, .40, and .65 for noncognitive goals involving social skills, self-concept, and behavior, respectively (translating to 20, 16, and 24 percentile point gains). Table 1.2 reports much of the research on cooperative learning.
Table 1.2 Research Results for Cooperative Learning
Communicating Goals and Providing Feedback
If goals provide clear targets for learning, then feedback may be thought of as information that facilitates the process of reaching those targets. Researchers John Hattie and Helen Timperley (2007) claim that in educational settings “the main purpose of feedback is to reduce discrepancies between current understandings and performance and a goal” (p. 86). Their comprehensive review synthesized research on the power of feedback to improve student achievement. Noting that many of the individual findings included in feedback meta-analyses are negative (showing that feedback sometimes inhibits performance), Hattie and Timperley distinguished between the effects of feedback about the task, the process, self-regulation, and the self. Feedback regarding the task, process, and self-regulation is often effective, whereas feedback regarding the self (often delivered as praise) typically does not enhance learning and achievement. They concluded:
Learning can be enhanced to the degree that students share the challenging goals of learning, adopt self-assessment and evaluation strategies, and develop error detection procedures and heightened self-efficacy to tackle more challenging tasks leading to mastery and understanding of lessons. (p. 103).
Table 1.3 presents the findings regarding feedback for a number of meta-analytic studies. Based on the findings reported in the table, one can conclude that feedback should be an integral part of any teacher's arsenal of strategies. Within The Classroom Strategies Series, we highlight the research on feedback in the book Formative Assessment and Standards-Based Grading (Marzano, in press). Here we include the research on feedback because it has a symbiotic relationship with goals. Without effective goals, feedback is impossible. Without feedback, goals are rendered quite sterile.
Table 1.3 Research Results for Feedback
What can a teacher take away from the research? Certainly one generalization is that setting clear and specific goals for learning that are at just the right level of difficulty can greatly enhance student achievement.
Translating Research Into Classroom Practice
In subsequent chapters, we will translate the research presented in this chapter into a number of recommendations for designing learning goals and the tasks that determine accomplishment of those goals. As mentioned in the introduction, as you progress through the remaining chapters, you will encounter exercises that ask you to examine the content presented. Some of these exercises ask you to answer specific questions. Answer these questions in the space provided, and check your answers with those reported in the back of the book. Other exercises are more open-ended and ask you to generate applications of what you have read. Reproducible versions of the exercises are included at the end of each chapter, and reproducible answer sheets are included at the end of the book. Visit marzanoresearch.com/classroomstrategies to download all the exercises and answers in this book.
Конец ознакомительного фрагмента.
Текст предоставлен ООО «ЛитРес».
Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию на ЛитРес.
Безопасно оплатить книгу можно банковской картой Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, со счета мобильного телефона, с платежного терминала, в салоне МТС или Связной, через PayPal, WebMoney, Яндекс.Деньги, QIWI Кошелек, бонусными картами или другим удобным Вам способом.
