skills
See Appendix 2 for a detailed description of these standards.
Introduction
This chapter will examine the concepts of power and powerlessness, both as generic concepts and specifically in relation to social work education and practice. Beginning with a discussion about what these terms mean, the chapter will address the relevance of this understanding for anti-oppressive social work, as well as the various types of power. I will propose the Power Flower (Arnold et al., 1991) as a useful tool for understanding, visualising and acknowledging our own power.
What is power?
In simple terms, ‘power’ refers to the possession of influence, authority or control over others or circumstances. This influence, authority or control can be used in ways that are consistent with social work values and social justice, or as a means of oppression.
There appear to be two main discourses around power – one discourse that sees power as a relational entity between and among two or more people. The second assumption is the one advocated by Foucault that sees power as operating within social relations at the most micro level. This suggests that power is not possessed but rather exercised; power is productive and repressive, and finally that power comes from the bottom up. These ideas of power by Foucault are useful in that they emphasise that power is not something that people own, but rather something that is created through social interactions and used in different settings and situations (Fook, 2012). Power is the ability to make decisions over and above other people.
Social work practitioners require clear and effective strategies of dealing with the consequences of power and not just the power itself. Smith (2010) argues that it is important to embed issues of power in practice and not to leave it as a secondary issue when the practitioner finds time in their busy schedule. In this regard Foucault (1998, p93) articulates the
omnipresence of power: not because it has the privilege of consolidating everything under its invincible unity, but because it is produced from one moment to the next, at every point, or rather in every relation from one point to another. Power is everywhere; not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere.
The importance of understanding power and powerlessness for social workers
Experienced social workers may have developed the skills to work within the context of power in their engagement with service users. They will be aware of the situations that call for the exercise of power and possibly control; however, research by Bundy-Fazioli et al. (2013) found that social workers were often hesitant about when and how to exercise their professional power in a manner that would not be experienced negatively by service users. Bar-On (2002) has argued that due to social work being a political activity, it is impossible for it to be devoid of power. It is therefore essential that social workers understand the effects of power at societal and structural levels. The media in the UK has tended to report social workers and social work interventions in a negative light, particularly in child safeguarding cases where reporting has implied the misuse or abuse of power.
Activity 3.1
Schraer (2016) reported in Community Care about a social worker who was struck off by the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) for abusing his power by way of using threatening language to foster carers and coercing them to provide a positive review to his employers about his engagement with them. Go to the Community Care website and read the article ‘“Recommend me or you’ll never see your children again”: Social worker struck off for abuse of power’. The article is also accessible via this link: www.communitycare.co.uk/2016/02/03/recommend-youll-never-see-children-social-worker-struck-abuse-power/ (accessed 7 June 2020).
What are your thoughts about:
The behaviour of the social worker?
The action taken against the social worker?
The impact on the service user?
Social workers therefore need to have an understanding of what aspects of their role makes them feel powerless, because it is only when they feel empowered that they will be able to effectively assist service users. Braye and Preston-Shoot (2003, p114) concluded that if practitioners are not part of the solution, they must be part of the problem. Consequently, an understanding of where they are positioned within the power structure is an important first step to acknowledging what needs to be done in terms of working effectively on the one hand and maintaining loyalty and effective management on the other.
Foucault (1998, p93) suggests that power is everywhere, not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere. In this regard, Smith (2008a) argues that there are a number of ways in which power might be conceptualised. These are:
Representations of power.
Modes of power.
Sites of power.
Representations of power
Here, Smith (2008a) argues that there are four ways in which power may be conceptualised: the potential of power, power as possession, power as process and power as product. The potential of power refers to the capacity to individuals, groups and communities to realise change or influence outcomes, while the power as possession implies a much more fixed view. Child protection social workers, for example, utilise this as representing a social institution that possesses legal authority. Power as process recognises the power inherent in group processes. The Family Group Conference is an example of social work practice that uses a creative and collaborative approach to decision making with service users. Finally, power as a product recognises that it is an outcome of social relations. An example of this are ‘experts by experience’ groups who promote their own power by coming together as a group and self-advocating. These representations of power should be an important consideration for social workers who seek to work in non-oppressive ways with service users.
In addition to these representations of power, French and Raven (1959) offer a fivefold typology of power:
1 Referent power.
2 Expert power.
3 Reward power.
4 Coercive power.
5 Legitimate power.
Referent power
Referent power is a result of one person taking a liking to another and therefore holding on to whatever they say as the truth. Celebrities are good examples of this form of power which they use to sway the public into purchasing particular goods and services. We also see this type of power being used when, for example, celebrities endorse a particular cause, which subsequently encourages others to support that cause.
Expert power
Expert power is gained through demonstrating expertise, and professional
