2016; Audisio, 2017), that there is a lack of taxonomists and experts with 10–15 years of experience in recognizing species (FAO, 2016), that taxonomic research is often lacking accurate and replicable taxonomic identification (Packer et al., 2018). Also in this case the important role of amateur taxonomists is recognized.
In conclusion, three main pillars can be identified in the complex architecture of (farmland) biodiversity monitoring: the experts, who hold the scientific knowledge of biodiversity and tools to measure it; the decision makers and funding bodies, who take decisions about what to monitor and support monitoring activities and monitoring architecture; and the citizens, essential in information recording.
12Where to look for further information
It is clear that the effort for reaching a sufficient level of biodiversity monitoring is a collective and specialised effort, that requires coordination among many actors at different levels. The improvement of scientific knowledge is supported by research funding, for example, under the EU Research and Innovation programmes (Horizon 2020, Horizon Europe). Moreover, bridging science and technology eases active citizenship involvement. Monitoring schemes can be set up on the basis of existing scientific knowledge, and improved at each survey round. It is a process that takes time, for example, the LUCAS grassland survey developed in approximately seven years from the discussions about the approach to take in 2015, to a first test survey in 2018, to an enlarged survey on 20 000 transects planned for 2022. The involvement of scientific communities (e.g. birds, lepidoptera, pollinators) holding the necessary knowledge about individual taxa or habitats is key. Coordination and support provided by governance bodies (national ministries, EU bodies) is needed to provide the framework for the implementation of the surveys (e.g. funding, coordination) and to secure their repetition through time.
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