imposing their values and beliefs on the weak.
Critique of Conflict Theory.
First, many conflict theorists focus on macro-level analysis and lose sight of the individuals involved in conflict situations, such as Hector and his family. Second, empirical research to test conflict theory is limited. The conflict perspective often paints a picture with rather broad brushstrokes. Research to test the picture involves interpretations of broad spans of history and is more difficult to claim as scientific. Third, conflict theorists tend to focus on social stress, power dynamics, and disharmony. Conflict theory is not very effective in explaining social cohesion and cooperation. Fourth, many critics of conflict theory argue that altruism and cooperation are common motivations in human behaviors but not recognized by conflict theory.
Thinking Sociologically
Imagine you are a legislator. You have to decide whether to cut funding for a senior citizens’ program or slash a scholarship program for college students. You want to be reelected, and you know that approximately 90% of senior citizens are registered to vote and most actually do vote. You also know that less than half of college-age people are likely to vote. These constituencies are about the same size. What would you do, and how would you justify your decision? How does this example illustrate conflict theory?
Multilevel Analysis.
Many of the more contemporary theorists try to bridge the gap between micro and macro levels of analysis, offering insights relevant at each level. We examine two of these next.
Max Weber’s Contributions.
Max Weber (1864–1920), a German-born social scientist, has had a lasting effect on sociology and other social sciences. Weber (pronounced VAY-ber) cannot be pigeonholed easily into one of the theoretical categories or one level of analysis, for his contributions include both micro- and macro-level analyses. His emphasis on Verstehen (meaning deep empathetic understanding in humans) gives him a place in micro-level theory, and his discussions of power and bureaucracies give him a place in meso- and macro-level theory (Weber 1946).
Verstehen stems from the interpretations or meanings individuals at the micro level give to their social experiences. Weber argued that to understand people’s behaviors, you must step into their shoes and see the world as they do. Following in Weber’s footsteps, sociologists try to understand both human behavior and the meanings that people attach to their experiences. In this work, Weber is a micro theorist who set the stage for symbolic interaction theorists.
However, the goal-oriented, efficient new organizational form called bureaucracy was the focus of much of Weber’s writing at the meso level. This organizational form was based on rationality (the attempt to reach maximum efficiency with rules that are rationally designed to accomplish goals) rather than relying on long-standing tradition for how things should be done. As we describe in Chapter 5, Weber’s ideas about society at the meso level have laid the groundwork for a theoretical understanding of modern organizations.
Weber also attempted to understand macro-level processes. For instance, in his famous book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Weber [1904–1905] 1958), he asked how capitalists (those who have money and control production) understood the world around them. His work was influenced by Marx’s writings, but whereas Marx focused on economic conditions as the key factor shaping history and power relations, Weber argued that Marx’s focus was too narrow. Weber felt that politics, economics, religion, psychology, and people’s ideas are interdependent—affecting each other. In short, Weber thought that society was more complex than Karl Marx’s theory, which focused only on two groups—the haves and the have-nots—in conflict over economic resources.
Feminist Theory.
Feminist theory also uses multilevel analysis and has foundations in the conflict perspective. Feminist theory critiques the hierarchical power structures that disadvantage women and other minorities (Cancian 1992; P. Collins 2008). Proponents note that men form an interest group intent on preserving their privileges. Feminists also argue that sociology has been dominated by a male perspective that does not give a complete view of the social world.
Some branches of feminist theory come from interaction perspectives, emphasizing the way gender socialization, cues, and symbols shape the nature of many human interactions. Thus, feminist theory moves from macro-level analyses (e.g., looking at national and global situations that give privileges to men) to micro-level analysis (e.g., looking at inequality between husbands and wives in marriage). In particular, feminist theory points to the importance of gender as a variable influencing social patterns (Burn 2011; Kramer and Beutel 2014; Lorber 2009; Messerschmidt et al. 2018).
People face inequality due to multiple factors, and it is the interplay of these factors that interests Patricia Hill Collins. An important contemporary scholar, Collins examines the discrimination and oppression people face because of their race, class, gender, sexuality, or nationality, all of which are interconnected. Collins (2008; Collins and Bilge 2016) uses the term intersectionality, meaning individuals have multiple identities (e.g., race, class, and gender) that intersect and impact their lives and opportunities.
▲ Patricia Hill Collins, an innovative feminist scholar, has challenged sociologists to look at the ways experiences of race, social class, gender, and sexuality intersect and reinforce one another.
© Photo courtesy of Patricia Hill Collins
Thinking Sociologically
To what extent are human beings free agents who can create their own social world and come up with their own ideas about how to live their lives? To what extent are our lives determined or influenced by the social systems around us and by our positions in the economic and political system? Is this different for different people, and why?
Using Different Theoretical Perspectives
Each of the theoretical perspectives described in this chapter begins from a set of assumptions about humans. Each makes a contribution to our understanding, but each has limitations or blind spots, such as not taking into account other levels of analysis (Ritzer 2011). Figure 2.1 provides a summary of cooperative versus competitive perspectives to illustrate how the theories differ.
▼ Figure 2.1 Cooperative Versus Competitive Perspectives
The strength of a theory depends on its ability to explain and predict behavior accurately. Each theoretical perspective focuses on a different aspect of society and level of analysis and gives us a different lens through which to view our social world. Depending on the questions we ask, different theories will be appropriate; the social world model helps us picture the whole system and determine which theory or theories best suits our needs in analyzing a specific social process or structure.
Thinking Sociologically
Consider the issue of homelessness in cities around the world. How could each of the theories discussed in this chapter be used to help
